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Abstract
Constructing habitable buildings from repurposed shipping containers is commonly seen as an inherently sustainable approach to building that reduces environmental impacts. While numerous studies have analyzed the relative energy performance of container-based buildings, few studies examine the relative carbon impact of high-performance container dwellings concerning other high-performance residential construction types. This paper presents a life cycle assessment that compares the material carbon emissions, operational carbon emissions, and carbon use intensity of a shipping container dwelling with an equivalent high-performance, light-frame wood dwelling across the critical time frames for meeting global climate goals. Analysis shows that the light-frame dwelling produces approximately 22% fewer carbon emissions and suggests that shipping containers do not necessarily offer an unequivocal path toward low-carbon building.
Acknowledgments
The University of Massachusetts Amherst Faculty Research Grant partially funded this research. Thanks to my Research Assistant, Alexander McNally, for his help with the graphics. Thanks also to Yestermorrow Design/Build School for the opportunity to collaborate on this project and use materials from the collaboration for this study.
Data Availability Statement
The data supporting this study’s findings are available from the corresponding author, RW, upon reasonable request.
Notes
1. A preliminary, condensed account of this research was presented as a project submission at the Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture (ACSA) 111 conference and published in the subsequent proceedings.
2. Shipping containers used in intermodal global transport freight are manufactured according to ISO standard 668:2020, including standard specifications for dimensions, weights, and tolerances. See https://www.iso.org/standard/76912.html. Containers typically measure 8 ft. 0 in. (2.23 m) wide by 8 ft. 6 in. (2.43 m) tall and come in a variety of lengths from 10 ft. 0 in. to 45 ft. 0 in. (3.04 m to 13.71 m). The most used containers for building applications are high cube containers that are 8 ft. 0 in. wide by 9ft. 6 in. tall (2.23 m x 2.74 m) by 20 ft. 0 in. (6.09 m) or 40 ft. 0 in. (12.19 m) long. ISO containers have a gross weight capacity of 67,200 lbs. (30.48 mT) and can be stacked nine containers high (sometimes even higher).
3. See Giriunas, Sezen, and Dupaix (Citation2012) for a thorough analysis of the structural properties of shipping containers for buildings.
4. Lstiburek (Citation2014) argues that decommissioned shipping containers are less watertight than many people assume and points out that achieving truly watertight structural welds at container penetrations and modifications requires highly skilled trades.
5. The general rule of thumb for minimum R-values for high-performance homes in the Northeast is R-20, R-40, and R-60 for the floor slab, walls, and ceiling, respectively (Straube Citation2011).
6. BEAM utilizes databases and methodologies shared with the Material Carbon Emissions Estimator (MCE2) from Natural Resources Canada. BEAM relies on GWP factors gathered from environmental product declarations (EPDs) or, when no EPDs are available, on average, GWP results from multiple peer reviewed LCAs of the product in question. For more information on BEAM methodology, please see https://www.buildersforclimateaction.org/beam-estimator.html.
7. 46.6 kBTU/ft.2 (147 watts/m2) is the average EUI for single-family homes per Goldstein, Gounaridis, and Newell (Citation2020). 59.6 kBTU/ft.2 (188 watts/m2) is the median EUI for multifamily residential buildings (Energy Star Citation2021).
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Robert L. Williams
Robert L. Williams is an Architect and Assistant Professor at the University of Massachusetts Amherst Department of Architecture. Williams’ practice and research center on climate change mitigation through decarbonization in residential design and construction. His work on the embodied carbon impacts of passive house-level multifamily residential buildings was recently published in the Journal of Green Building.