A teacher’s self-study of digitally-enabled assessment practices to support enhancements in assessment literacy in primary physical education

ABSTRACT

In physical education, assessment is a fundamental component of purposeful and meaningful learning experiences for students, with the predominant goal to support and enhance student learning. Implementing the use of digital technologies in physical education can also contribute to improved engagement, motivation and student learning. While there is a substantial amount of research around digital technology and physical education within secondary school, less research exists around using digital technology to support quality assessment practices, particularly in a lower-primary physical education setting. Therefore, the purpose of this paper was to explore one physical educators’ experience using digital technology to support assessment implementation in an Australian primary physical education setting. Three themes were identified through analysis: shifting assumptions of practice, building comprehension and application, and challenges and opportunities in attempting to implement quality assessment using digital technology. We highlight the value of self-study research as professional learning for practising teachers and the importance of assessment literacy.

KEYWORDS:

• ICT
• professional learning
• digital literacy
• assessment literacy
• physical education
• self-study

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Correction

One of the biggest challenges physical education professionals (i.e. teachers and teacher educators) face is understanding and implementing quality assessment practices (Leirhaug & MacPhail, 2015). Assessment research in this space has grown over the last decade. For example, in this journal, Curriculum Studies in Health and Physical Education, assessment research has been published in the examinable physical education space (Penney et al., 2023), from practising teachers’ perspectives (Barrientos Hernán et al., 2023), and in the teacher education space (Scanlon et al., 2023; Walters et al., 2023). Alongside this, the International Association for Physical Education in Higher Education (AIESEP) have put considerable effort into constructing a position statement for assessment (AIESEP, 2020). Despite this heightened awareness (in research at least), assessment implementation challenges continue.

Assessment can be defined in different ways (which arguably contributes to its challenges) but is generally described as tasks and/or experiences which teachers use to enhance student learning and measure student progress (Black & William, 2005). Assessment can be considered a ‘pedagogical necessity’ (Hay et al., 2015; MacPhail et al., 2018) and is central to the teaching and learning process (Leirhaug & MacPhail, 2015). Assessment practices, such as quality Assessment for Learning (AfL), lead to positive student outcomes when embedded in physical education (Borghouts et al., 2017; MacPhail & Halbert, 2010; Leirhaug & MacPhail, 2015; López-Pastor et al., 2013). For example, MacPhail and Halbert’s (2010) research demonstrated how involving students in the assessment process (through highlighting the learning intentions and success criteria) and providing students with a level of ownership over the assessment through self- (i.e. as assessment wheel) and peer-assessment (i.e. peer observation and feedback) enhanced student learning and highlighted opportunities to guide teacher’s planning. Research such as this emphasises the effectiveness of quality assessment practices such as AfL and formative assessment. Yet, assessment enactment is often ‘disconnected from learning’ (Hay & Penney, 2013). Lorente-Catalán and Kirk (2016) suggest that physical educators have been conducting assessments in a standardised way that is not in alignment with the teaching and learning process.

Like assessment, the importance of integrating digital technology into education, specifically physical education (Wallace et al., 2022), has increased over the years. When implemented effectively, digital technology in physical education can enhance students’ learning through making the learning more effective and innovative; however, physical educators often find themselves needing support or unable to integrate technology in meaningful ways (Butler et al., 2015).

Overall, the importance of quality assessment is well reported in the literature (Black & William, 2010; Gipps, 1994; Shepard, 2000) and the possibilities for digital technology (Casey et al., 2017) to support student learning in secondary physical education is gaining traction in the literature base. Yet, there is little known about how digital technology might be used to implement quality assessment practices, particularly at an early primary level (i.e. students typically aged 6–10). As such, the aim of this study is to explore one teacher’s experience (i.e. first author) of using digital technology to support assessment implementation in their primary physical education practice. This self-study explores the micro assessment practices (i.e. classroom based practices) of a teacher in primary physical education. We acknowledge that this research is influenced by the macro assessment discourses and practices operating across the broader context and education system in Australia (e.g. the National Assessment Program – Literacy and Numeracy [NAPLAN]), however, we do not have the space to explore these discourses in detail. As such, while this may be a limitation of the study, we focus on the micro (classroom) context and the associated assessment practices within primary physical education.

A lack of knowledge of ‘assessment’

Research highlights how physical educators often keep students ‘in the dark’ throughout the assessment process (Hamodi et al., 2017; Leirhaug & Annerstedt, 2016; Sofo et al., 2013). For example, students can be ‘in the dark’ with regards to knowing the success criteria or being involved in making assessment decisions (Borghouts et al., 2017; Svennberg et al., 2014). As a result, and for a long period of time, students have found it difficult to understand what is being assessed in class, with teachers often relying on their ‘gut feelings’ which do not usually correspond to knowledge requirements in the national or state curriculum (Redelius & Hay, 2012). To further dilute clarity for students, some teacher’s assessment practices include assessing parts of physical education that are not related to student learning such as uniform or attendance (Borghouts et al., 2017; Kniffin & Baert, 2015; Tolgfors, 2017).

Numerous authors identify a lack of knowledge around assessment and teachers’ indifferences towards assessment and pedagogy in physical education as core challenges in implementing quality assessment practices (Hay & Penney, 2013). To clearly understand what assessment is and how it benefits students, a distinction must be made between its purpose, benefits and how to effectively use it. This lack of understanding, among other things, can be considered barriers to quality assessment.

Barriers to quality assessment

There are many barriers and challenges teachers face when attempting to effectively assess student learning (Starck et al., 2018). In addition to having resistance to change in practices (Chng & Lund, 2021; Hay et al., 2015), a lack of assessment literacy, and teachers’ indifferences towards assessment and pedagogy in physical education have implications on the quality of assessment implemented in practice (Hay & Penney, 2013). For example, even though formative assessment practices such as AfL are deemed to have a positive impact on the teaching and learning cycle, it is yet to be consistently integrated within educational practices (Lorente-Catalán & Kirk, 2016; MacPhail & Murphy, 2017; Tolgfors & Öhman, 2016; van der Mars et al., 2018). Assessment is still thought of being disconnected from learning (Hay & Penney, 2013) by teachers who ‘assume’ assessment is only at the last stage of a unit (Moon et al., 2016). The persistence of ‘outdated’ assessment practices is not surprising. It has been argued that physical educators also lack the skills, time and training (López-Pastor et al., 2013) required to enact AfL successfully (Hortigüela–Alcalá et al., 2016). Young and colleagues’ (2022) research, which explored teacher educators’ perceptions and use of assessment, highlighted a lack of assessment literacy amongst teacher educators which contributes to teachers’ lack of knowledge of how to enact assessment, including AfL. Moura et al. (2021) argue that the rebuilding of conceptions, thinking and practices on how to use and implement quality assessment to improve the learning of students in physical education is paramount. It is believed that the concept of assessment literacy should be a prerequisite for teachers and should be achieved through teacher education (Kim & Lee, 2021).

Assessment literacy

It is expected that teachers have adequate knowledge to implement assessment and be ‘able to select, construct and implement meaningful assessments and make coherent and productive interpretations of the information they receive’ (Popham, 2009, p. 5). Consequently, teachers need to become familiar with the language of assessment and embed assessment into their classroom practices (Hay & Penney, 2013). In recent decades, the term ‘assessment literacy’ has been used within general education literature to describe a teachers’ understanding (and use) of assessment (Popham, 2006). It is believed that assessment literacy may enhance teachers’ ability and self-assurance when it comes to understanding and implementing assessment effectively (Leirhaug et al., 2016). To facilitate teachers’ professional learning around assessment, Hay and Penney (2013) designed an assessment literacy framework (see Table 1). According to the assessment literacy framework (Hay & Penney, 2013), teachers need to have the capability to conduct quality assessment (i.e. Comprehension; Application; and Interpretation) and have a broader understanding of the sociocultural conditions and consequences of assessment (i.e. Critical). With this in mind, we will briefly discuss each of the four components (while acknowledging the interdependence of each component).

Table 1. The four components of the assessment literacy framework (Hay & Penney, 2013).

Assessment literacy framework – four phases
Comprehension	Application	Interpretation	Critical
Understanding and knowledge of what is assessment	Integration and implementation of effective assessment	Being able to interpret and act on the assessment information and data	Consideration of the power involved when using assessment

Assessment comprehension

This first area of the framework focuses on a teacher’s knowledge of assessment, i.e. assessment comprehension. Assessment comprehension consists of understanding the purpose of assessment, how assessment will affect student learning, the construction of experiences for the students, the validity that teachers make through interpretation and the bases for socially just assessment practices (Hay & Penney, 2013). A key feature of assessment comprehension is having a strong awareness of the relationship between curriculum, assessment, and pedagogy (and the need for planning), i.e. instructional alignment (Scanlon et al., 2023).

Assessment application

Assessment application refers to the capability teachers have to apply their knowledge through implementing assessment tasks while collecting data and evidence to make valid ‘fit-for-purpose’ interpretations from the evidence (Hay & Penney, 2013). This can involve having conversations with students or ‘debriefing the class’ following the assessment task in which they have undertaken so they can make meaning and the information can be more beneficial.

Assessment interpretation

Linked closely to validity, assessment interpretation focuses on how teachers understand the evidence and what they will do with the evidence they have collected. This can be then broken up into two features: (i) teachers must utilise the information to determine the learning progress so pedagogical adjustments can be made; and (ii) referencing the data collected on students through assessment criteria to establish levels of achievement (Hay & Penney, 2013).

Critical engagement

The last area of the assessment literacy framework focuses on the impact or consequences of the assessment. This area is closely connected with assessment interpretation as it ‘affects teachers’ understanding of the limits of interpretations that can be made about the information collected through assessment in physical education’ (Hay & Penney, 2013). Critical engagement within assessment requires teachers to be considerate of the power balances and social dynamics within the classroom.

Hay and Penney (2013) report the interdependence of the four framework elements to be crucial; one absent element will impair ones’ level of assessment literacy.

Digital technology and physical education

Teachers are now encouraged to embed digital technology in their teaching to help students become ‘digitally literate’ citizens (Frallion et al., 2020). Digital technology in physical education can be used as a powerful learning tool to transform learning (VCAA, 2021) through its ability to ‘consider learning from a constructivist perspective’ and allow for ‘assessing teaching through multiple different lenses’ (Casey et al., 2017, p. 46). It has been reported that digital technology can increase student engagement (Goodyear et al., 2004), increase motivation (Goodyear et al., 2014; Pyle & Esslinger, 2014), improve cognitive understanding (Casey & Jones, 2011; Palao et al., 2015), assist in learning and performing skills (O’Loughlin et al., 2013; Palao et al., 2015) and support assessment (Penney et al., 2023).

Digital technology can be in the form of an iPad, tablet, computers, internet, or a mobile application to name a few (Sargent & Casey, 2020). Most common in the physical education literature is the use of iPads and how they support learning in primary and secondary (general) education (Chen et al., 2003; Rogers et al., 2005). Goodyear et al. highlighted that the use of iPads in secondary physical education can provide opportunities for students to work independently or in partnerships, engage a variety of students, research information and even compare themselves to a flawless model of a skill. McFarlane (2013) discuss how using an iPad for teaching and learning is the prospective for real-time learning and its lightweight portability of being able to move it around. iPads in physical education serve as great tool for the reinforcement of observational learning through conducting video analysis (Dundar & Akcayir, 2014; Herbert & Landin, 1994; Lee & Gao, 2020). Further, the use of iPads allows for the provision of immediate feedback and supports both self and peer-assessment (Penney et al., 2012). Hay and Penney (2013) contextualise digital technology in physical education as ‘fundamental’ as students viewing camera shots of video as ‘evidence’ relating to their performance of conducting a skill supports opportunities for embedding AfL.

While digital technology may be seen as ‘fundamental’ to embedding AfL, this comes with caution. Fullan and Langworthy (2014) warn that digital technology alone cannot strengthen student learning. Instead, it is the pedagogical process of integration technology is what needs to be considered (Casey et al., 2017). Similar to the enactment of quality assessment, there are a number of barriers to embedding digital technology into practice reported in the research. A lack of ‘digital literacy’ and inadequate training on how to implement these tools (Gibbone et al., 2010) is common, along with the high financial expense (Orlando, 2014), limited time (Palao et al., 2015), teacher nervousness (Gibbone et al., 2010), teacher-burden (Pyle & Esslinger, 2014), teacher resistance to change (Kretschmann, 2015), mobility of devices (Paolo et al., 2015) and lack of resources (Villalba et al., 2017). Physical educators also found that maintaining connectivity to the internet and WIFI was a large barrier with sometimes having to hotspot off their own smartphone, along with lack of storage space available on the devices (Franklin & Smith, 2015). In primary school specifically, Ní Chróinín and Cosgrave (2013) emphasised that inadequate levels of technical support, insufficient access to technology for children, insufficient time for preparation and planning are challenges teachers face when embedding the use of technology to enhance student learning. Literature also identifies that physical education teachers often do not feel supported or encouraged from leadership in their school and training around technology implementation isn’t an option (Waller et al., 2022).

With the assessment and digital technology literature in mind, we sought to explore the use of digital technology as a means of implementing quality assessment practices. As such, this self-study explores one teacher’s implementation of quality assessment through the use of digital technology in primary health and physical education classes.

Methodology

A self-study methodology was adopted for this research. Self-study offers a means for teachers and teacher educators to engage in a personalised and sustainable form of professional learning through exploration of their experiences and understandings of the self in practice (Attard, 2014; Ovens & Fletcher, 2014). Beyond personal and professional growth outcomes (Fletcher, 2016), engaging in self-study also provides an opportunity to share the learning with others in the field (Pinnegar & Hamilton, 2009) and extend the knowledge base of teaching (Vanassache & Kelchtermans, 2015). In this way, self-study research is practice-based and theory-building (Vanassache & Kelchtermans, 2015).

While much of the current self-study research is focused on the experiences and practice of teacher educators (Vanassache & Kelchtermans, 2015), it is an empowering research methodology and is of great value for school teachers who have an interest in developing a deeper understanding of their practice (Samaras, 2011). It is both the opportunity for me to deepen my understanding of practice, improve my personal and professional engagement, as well as share my insights with the field of physical education (teacher education) that has driven this work. To guide our methodology, we draw on the five features of self-study research articulated by LaBoskey (2004, pp. 842–853) which includes: (1) self-initiated and focused. It is inquiry of the self by the self (Samaras & Freese, 2006); (2) aimed to improve and develop new knowledge of practice; (3) is interactive and done in collaboration with others; (4) uses multiple research methods; (5) demonstrates trustworthiness and methodological rigour. How we address each of the five elements of self-study research is unpacked below through the research design.

Context

Over a 10-week period in term one of the 2022 academic year (February–April), I taught two units; a striking and fielding unit (8× 60-minute lessons) and a soccer unit (6× 60-minute lessons) with 25 co-ed year two students. The units were based on a game-sense approach with modifications to the movement forms to assist students in understanding in developing both tactics and skills of the game/s. Informed by Breed and Spittle (2020), resources were created and the activities were scaffolded with the intention to widen students’ understanding and use of ICT within physical education and how I can implement ICT to enact quality assessment. Hay and Penney’s (2013) assessment literacy framework provides a well-defined conceptual framework for understanding the principles, processes, and practices of assessment in education. Using assessment literacy as a theoretical framework for this research allowed me to explore the intersection of ICT and assessment through my knowledge and application of assessment in my practice.

Participant

The first of two of LaBoskey’s (2004) five suggested elements of self-study research methodology are that it is self-initiated and focused as well as improvement aimed. I am a full-time teacher of health and physical education at an independent school in Melbourne, Victoria. In my 5 years of teaching since graduating from my initial teacher education (Bachelor of Applied Science, Health and Physical Education), my interest in continuing to improve my practice persists. Since the arrival of the COVID-19 pandemic, which required spending even more time on technology, I found myself wanting to improve my pedagogy and understanding around ICT and assessment in primary physical education.

Data collection

The third and fourth of LaBoskey’s (2004) suggested elements of self-study research are that it is interactive and includes multiple methods of data collection, often qualitative. To this, Costa and Kallick (1993) advocate for interaction with a critical friend which can assist the teacher to understand the way they interpret and view their own experiences through another lens and can be a valuable tool to help expand one’s thoughts around how they may view their experiences. Self-study invites you to share your learning and understanding with your critical friend which can cause some distress for some people, even though it is imperative for improvement and growth in the profession (Loughran, 2007).

As my critical friend, Cassandra (second author) enabled an informed yet ‘outsider viewpoint’ to be used to reconsider perspectives on my practice (Samaras, 2011). Cassandra, once a teacher of primary and secondary health and physical education in Canada, is now a teacher educator at Deakin University in Melbourne, Australia. Among her teaching and research interests, Cassandra has a passion for assessment in physical education. Her deep theoretical understanding and experience in practice provided a strong foundation for prompting me to deepen my thinking and open new ways of thinking about my practice (Schuck & Russell, 2006). After obtaining institutional ethical approval, data were collected through critical friend meetings and weekly written critical reflections. Cassandra and I engaged in 9 weekly critical friendship discussions across 10 weeks over zoom which were audio recorded and later transcribed (total of 86 pages transcribed). Weekly critical self-reflection journal entries (total of 59 pages, single spaced) were written following each lesson with my grade two class, I used a reflection template with prompts such as, ‘what worked?’, ‘what didn’t work?’, ‘what caught my attention?’, ‘what I wonder’, and ‘what I would do differently if there were a next time’.

Data analysis

To help identify themes from the data, both early within the research and in later stages, an inductive thematic analysis was used (Braun & Clarke, 2012). Consistent with a constructivist paradigm, thematic analysis allows for researchers to examine themes that were both explicit and implied (Braun & Clarke, 2012). All data sets – reflective journals and critical friend meetings – were analysed. Guided by Braun and Clarke’s (2012) approach, we began the analysis process with the data (inductive) and this led us to the theoretical framework to best explain the constructed data. To ensure trustworthiness, LaBoskey’s (2004) fifth element of self-study research, we utilise various strategies including triangulation between various data sources (including critical reflections and critical discussions) as well as bringing in an additional investigator, Dylan (third author), as an external perspective (Mena & Russell, 2017) to engaging in a process of peer debriefing to collaboratively discuss the data and findings. It is worth noting that we use first person plural (i.e. we, our) when referring to our collective opinion or to tasks undertaken by all three authors, such as data analysis. First person singular (i.e. I) is used to convey Celeste experience as the first author and participant of the research. And third person singular (i.e. Cassandra, Dylan) is used when referring to individuals in the research.

Results

This research aimed to explore my experience of using digital technology to support implementation of quality assessment in primary physical education to support student learning. Three themes were constructed and will be unpacked in turn.

Shifting assumptions of practice

For the first time, I had to explicitly uncover my assumptions about teaching and learning. I initially assumed that students must have fun in each lesson, despite the word fun not being mentioned at all in the Australian Curriculum for Health and Physical Education: ‘I want my students to walk out of my lesson huffing and puffing and that they’ve simply had fun’. My pedagogical focus on ‘fun’ and ‘huffing and puffing’ had a significant impact on my planning and teaching as I found it challenging to prioritise assessment in my lessons. Despite knowing that AfL is imperative and should happen, my planning and implementation aligned more closely with summative assessment; assigning grades and feedback only at the end of the unit. Upon reflection and in discussion with my critical friend, I came to realise that, for me to improve my practice, I would need to understand what is guiding my assumptions: Why do I prioritise ‘fun’ and to what extent is there tension between fun and implementing assessment? Over time I came to articulate that:

I feel if it’s not fun to an extent, they are not going to have a lifelong passion for physical activity and want to participate in sport after, so I feel like my philosophy is that it has to be skill based so they learn but also try and incorporate as much fun as possible because these are the years, I can have the biggest impact on them.

For me, it was less about ‘just having fun’ and more about student learning and empowerment. I began to see the possibilities for and moments of ‘accidental’ AfL in my practice already. Sometimes incorporating digital-based assessment is initiated by a big shift in practice but also, a shift in perspective and understanding how assumptions inform practice is an effective starting point for improvement.

Through critical friend discussions, I began to challenge my assumptions of my Grade Two students’ abilities. A deficit view of students’ capacity was evident when I commented, ‘They’re just in year two’ and ‘I’m not sure how much ICT assessment I will be able to do with them considering how young they are’. Despite the intent of this research being ‘improvement orientated’ (LaBoskey, 2004), my hesitancy to implement assessment and the integration of ICT was noticeable, and, often fuelled by assumptions that my students ‘aren’t able’ due to their age: ‘I’m starting to have all these ideas of how I can use assessment in my practice, but my limiting factor is them being young’.

Once I was able to recognise that it was my own assumptions about what my students are able or not able to engage with meaningfully, I was able to overcome this challenge by ‘giving it a try, even if it goes to sh**’. For example, in week 5 at the end of the striking and fielding unit, students participated in a kahoot quiz (for the first time in my lessons) to review skills learnt in the unit so far. While I later came to realise this assessment lacked authenticity and purpose, at the time, it ran much better than anticipated. I came to acknowledge that, ‘students are capable in year 2 of doing a kahoot, I need to give them more credit. They were great’. My assumptions and beliefs had changed not only around assessment in physical education but the capability of year 2 students. I found the courage to continue to implement different ways of using the iPads to support student learning: ‘I’ve learnt from this situation that this can work with grade twos. Prior to conducting this self-study research … . I would have over-thought it and made excuses that “they’re too young to do something like this”’.

Building comprehension and application

My knowledge around the assessment literacy framework was identified as an area which warranted more support. It became obvious that my lack of assessment literacy played a large part when thinking about using digital technology to support assessments to enhance learning. I lacked confidence justifying my pedagogical decisions when reflecting on my experience of incorporating digital technologies to support assessment implementation. From the start, there was a connection between a lack of knowledge and understanding the purpose of assessment (Hay & Penney, 2013). Note that understanding the purpose of assessment is an important aspect physical education teachers must properly comprehend before guiding and planning their lessons: ‘I’ve been able to provide way more feedback, but I have no evidence other than my own observations, is that classified as evidence?’.

My comprehension skills were somewhat lacking, particularly around understanding what assessment is and the ability to make sense of the assessment data and its use in informing my planning. On one occasion I used the iPad and filmed the students performing particular skills as a pre-assessment. However, confusion was evident around what other ways digital assessment can be used to enhance the learning of students: ‘I haven’t really thought about different ways I could incorporate technology that isn’t an iPad with the young ones’. It wasn’t until the final few weeks of the unit where students conducted video analysis of each other and provided feedback to each other that the iPads were used as a great tool for learning (in terms of capturing data for assessment use).

Challenges and opportunities in attempting to implement quality assessment using digital technology

The integration of digital technology in supporting assessment and planning was key in my journey of building my teaching (digital) capacity. A key issue that appeared quite frequently was anxiety around technology use and the hesitancy around ‘trying something new’ even though I did really want too: ‘I have anxiety around technology, I get worried I’m going to drop it’. Alongside my own personal challenges, a number of issues arose around using digital technology (i.e. the iPads) including poor connectivity, the screen ‘timing out’ and accessibility. For example, WiFi connection became much slower when using the iPad outside of the main gym: ‘What caught my attention was my own frustration, it was just so annoying how slow the WiFi was’. When outside during summer, weather issues arose: ‘It was so hot outside I couldn’t even see my iPad when recording with the glare, I was holding it hoping for the best, it also repeatedly timed me out’.

Challenges also arose around the time-consuming process of conducting filming as assessment. Even though students did benefit from being filmed as a way of receiving immediate feedback, it was a slow process throughout the journey. ‘You film, take them out to show them, sit down, talk to them, if I do this with all 25 kids and it takes 3–4 minutes to go through every student, wow’. Feedback is an essential part of teacher pedagogy and can actively support desired learning (Hay & Penney, 2013). Yet, the data shows that even though the iPad provided evidence for immediate and corrective feedback, time constraints had a significant impact on my experience and willingness to implement ICT assessment:

I have learnt that it is hard to conduct follow ups with students once you have filmed them, sat down with them, and have a chat. I have found that yes it has been great to be able to provide immediate feedback to students however, if I don’t get a chance to follow up with them later in the lesson or even immediately in the next lesson, was there any point in using ICT for assessment? Could I have conducted this assessment without using the iPad?

As the teaching term progressed, tensions appeared around negotiating practical challenges such as, the realities of showing and discussing student’s one-on-one feedback and somewhat ignoring whole class management. This raised questions around the amount of time I spend using video and still image captures to provide feedback to students and how this might distract from ‘live moments and class management’. I note particular struggles around finding it hard to ‘balance between keeping your back to the wall, providing feedback to students, running the class, managing injuries, maybe there just isn’t enough time for everything?’. When reflecting on this, I questioned: ‘Maybe it just comes down to a lack of knowledge on how to do so, like when I think about my undergraduate degree I don’t recall once ever learning about ICT as a way to enhance student learning’.

Despite tensions, there were a number of tools which assisted in implementing and tracking assessment, including an Apple App ‘iDoceo’: ‘It’s so cool that through the app on the iPad I can just take photos and videos and it’s sorted straight to their name that I click on; it just makes everything so much easier’. The benefits of an app such as this allows for evidence to be aligned with student names rather than having to take the photo and then airdrop it onto the laptop which is such a time-consuming process. I was able to use the iPad in creative, diverse ways which developed my teaching capacity and knowledge: ‘I’ve learnt that adding ICT added value to assessment, I wouldn’t have been able to show student/s what they could work on when hitting the ball if it wasn’t from the evidence, the iPad has been very beneficial’.

Using my finger to conduct annotations was another tool on the iPad which helped in providing visual feedback for students: ‘I was able to use my finger to annotate on iDoceo and the students could annotate as well, that’s pretty cool, it was nice for the kids and I to work together and share the responsibility of learning’. I was able to have one-on-one conversations with the students showing them photos of themselves and they were able to identify how they can improve:

ICT has been amazing for instant and immediate feedback to students, every time I sit down with a student, they’re able to identify what they need to work out, and I wouldn’t have been able to give that feedback without the evidence from the iPad.

Discussion

This research aimed to explore my experience of using digital technology to support implementation of quality assessment in primary physical education to support student learning. Aligning Hay and Penney’s (2013) framework of assessment literacy with the research findings, evidence of engagement and development in each component is clear. In terms of ‘comprehension’, my understanding of what assessment was and the ability to make sense of the assessment data and its use in informing my planning was somewhat lacking. As indicated in the findings, I was capturing great evidence on the iPad of my students performing a skill, collating images, and videos into student folders, however, I was often stuck with what to do next with the data which in turn had an impact on my future planning (or not, to be more accurate). Others have reported similar implementation challenges when attempting to implement assessment practices (e.g. MacPhail & Halbert, 2010). Through the self-study process, and the use of a critical friend, comprehension in this space increased and an understanding of ‘what’, ‘why’, and ‘how’ of assessment was developed. I learned how to use the data through shifting my understanding of what assessment is and why one would use it, i.e. using assessment to understand where the students are in their learning and what the next steps in that learning are. By using assessment in this manner, I was able to use assessment data in my planning for student learning and therefore use assessment to enhance student learning.

In terms of ‘application’ (component two), using digital technology as a means to implement assessment assisted in the overall integration and implementation of assessment. The findings highlight the importance of having the courage to take risks, be inspired, build confidence overtime (through ‘comprehension’), and to ‘give it a go’ when enacting new assessment approaches. Through the creation of the inquiry soccer lesson, students filmed each other performing soccer skills and gave each other instant peer-feedback. Students also rated themselves on a scale through self-assessment which demonstrated their progress and learning. The success of this self-assessment approach highlighted how capable the students were (more than initially assumed) – this connects to building the students’ assessment literacy. We acknowledge the interrelatedness of the elements (Hay & Penney, 2013) as this example came as a result of increased comprehension.

With regards to ‘interpretation’, using assessment data to inform planning and next steps within a lesson is an element of assessment literacy that I found slowly improved over the course of this research. In small ways, I was able to interpret assessment data in the formative space, for example, through self- and teacher-assessment using digital technology. Through using the iPad each week, filming students, sitting down with them, having conversations while using annotations as a way to assist with the evidence and learning, I was able to assist with their learning as they were able to see themselves through play back and identify what they need to work on. Digital technology allowed the students to engage in self-assessment and this allowed me to formatively assess the class before using this data and moving on to progress the design of learning experiences. Using different forms of assessment (in this case, self- and teacher-) through the use of digital technology enhanced the overall interpretation of assessment data and helped with the planning of the ‘next steps’ in student learning. In addition to this, the examples of the use of digital technology provided throughout speak to students’ learning in the psychomotor domain of learning, but there are opportunities to also use digital technology to explicitly teach to the cognitive and affective domains of learning in the same learning experience. For example, in using the iPads to film skills to enhance skill development, students are giving each other peer-feedback and we can scaffold social and emotional learning skills here (e.g. active listening, understanding strengths and areas for improvements – affective learning) through the use of iPad recordings. In the same learning experience, students could identify tactics and strategies in using the iPads in, for example, inquiry soccer (apps such as Coach’s Eye would assist in this – cognitive learning). We suggest that the use of digital technology extends beyond the psychomotor domain and can enhance (and assess) the learning of the affective and cognitive domains in creative and innovative ways.

Finally, in terms of ‘critical’, the self-study process greatly assisted in developing this aspect of the assessment literacy framework. Self-study has been described as ‘a particular form of practitioner inquiry that simultaneously focuses on understanding [the] self as it enacts practice’ (Loughran, 2007, p. 19). Similar to Tannehill et al. (2015), questioning my assumptions and examining my own practice, at times, felt frightening and uncomfortable. Yet, findings highlight the value of understanding the ‘self’ in relation to practice. Not only is increased content and/or pedagogical content knowledge necessary for improvement of practice, so is a greater understanding of assumptions, values, and beliefs that drive our pedagogical decisions. Change in my practice was limited given my assumptions on the value and purpose of assessment and the early primary students’ capabilities with regards to assessment. Improvements in my practice (and development in assessment literacy) became evident after my assumptions were unearthed through reflective writing and critical friend interactions. This highlighted the power balances involved when using assessment, for example, believing that the teacher is the most ‘powerful’ in the classroom in the implementation of assessment. These unbalanced power ratios are reported in the literature in different teaching scenarios, for example, teaching a new curriculum (Author reference 1). Through critical reflections and interrogation, I came to understand how capable students (even the younger ones) are. We, as teachers, need to acknowledge this by providing opportunities/experiences for students to actively engage in the assessment process; from design through to implementation.

We recommend that teachers who are seeking improvements in their practice need to invest time and energy in understanding their own assumptions, beliefs, and experiences and how they inform their current practice (so as to support identifying spaces for change). In my experience, engaging with a critical friend on an ongoing basis was extremely supportive to safely hold space for the necessary vulnerability and introspection to make the implicit explicit. This is a strong suggestion for all teachers who want to engage in enhancing their practice (assessment or otherwise). Through self-study, it allowed for not only vulnerability, but also allowed for my thoughts to alter what I needed to amend to improve my pedagogy and practice which in turn will assist students with their learning. It was at times emotionally exhausting as my thinking was exposed; however, I developed a new love and appreciation for reflective practice. Practising teachers would benefit from policies and practices within schools which prioritise and support the time and space required to engage with meaningful reflection individually, or as findings from this research suggest, as potentially more valuable, collaboratively to support the development of their practice, and, in turn, improve student learning. There are different reflection models in which teachers can use and adapt, for example, Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning reflective model, and this may assist in providing structure to one’s reflective practice going forward. Although my experience supported a change in my practice, it is important to acknowledge that identifying the ways in which normalised, taken-for-granted assumptions about practice can raise awareness and maybe translate to change, it is a complex process. There are limitations and various factors that impact whether identifying assumptions and taken-for-granted truths will, in fact, translate to changed practices.

We outline two implications for schools and PETE. First, endeavouring to grow or, having the desire to try something new, a physical education teacher must try to step outside of their comfort zone, even though there may be a level of nervousness and potential barriers arise along the way. To take this step, professional learning is helpful to support physical education teachers. Professional learning has shown to improve teachers’ knowledge of content and pedagogy which is associated with positive effects on student learning (Borko, 2004; Desimone et al., 2002) and is largely considered an important aspect for improving teacher quality (Gore et al., 2017). Physical educators must know how to execute software and have an ability to handle technology correctly if they’re going to integrate it to enhance student learning. As indicated by the findings of this study, we recommend a focus on supporting professional learning and upskilling opportunities for teachers of physical education to engage with relevant apps, for example, iDoceo which proved critical in this self-study. In addition to this, this research highlights the usefulness of digital technology for assessment for primary aged students. As such, professional learning on digital technology and assessment for this age group needs to be given attention. It is crucial that leaders within schools support the need and time for professional learning to ensure educators are up to date with current educational practice, pedagogy, and techniques (Cardina & James, 2015).

Second, physical educators may benefit from greater education on the use of digital technologies as pedagogical tools, and in particular, for the use of implementing assessment. Given the strong relationship between teachers’ assessment capabilities, curriculum, pedagogy and assessment, PETE programmes need to be reviewed around the content of learning experiences they are providing to students to ensure future physical educators are equipped to enhance learning experiences (Hay & Penney, 2013; Moura et al., 2021). If pre-service teachers are educated on the assessment literacy framework (Hay & Penney, 2012), they can find the courage to ‘give it a go’ when on placements before starting their teaching career. We encourage the centralisation of the assessment literacy framework, supported by digital technologies, in PETE programmes which can educate pre-service teachers, develop meaningful pedagogical (including assessment) approaches, and therefore, enhance student learning in school-based settings.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Correction Statement

This article was originally published with errors, which have now been corrected in the online version. Please see Correction (https://doi.org/10.1080/25742981.2023.2278392)

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Celeste Fletcher

Celeste Fletcher is a primary health and physical education at an independent, co-educational, Anglican, day and boarding school in Melbourne. Celeste has recently completed a Master of Education (Leadership & Management) post-graduate degree and has a passion for delivering quality physical education lessons.

Cassandra Iannucci

Cassandra Iannucci is a teacher educator in the School of Education at Deakin University, Melbourne, Australia. Cassandra’s research interests include (physical education) teacher education, assessment, students as partners, and democratic practices. She is also drawn towards exploring social and emotional learning across education sectors.

Dylan Scanlon

Dylan Scanlon is a teacher educator in the School of Education at Deakin University, Melbourne, Australia. Dylan’s research interests include (physical education) curriculum and assessment, physical education teacher education, policy, social justice, and figurational sociology.