Vital phenomena: life, information, and consciousness

Abstract

Various phenomena of life are typically explained by the physical sciences. Although the biological structures of a living being are subject to physical laws, we suggest that life, information, and consciousness are biological phenomena that are not. In this paper, we present new concepts and viewpoints about the very nature of biology. Life, information, and consciousness are identified as a unique set of biological phenomena that are common to only and all living beings. These three distinct phenomena always occur together in a whole pattern, and matter is viewed as the carrier of these phenomena. We explore the unique characteristics of life, information, and consciousness, and their relationships to one another. The experiences and behaviors of human beings, our present-day knowledge of biology, and some organisms’ simple behaviors that we can observe are used to understand these biological phenomena. A distinction between genetic information and non-genetic information is also made, and their importance to life is emphasized. The interactions of biological activities between living beings and their environments are explained in the context of improving their chance of survival. Additionally, consciousness is simplified and exemplified via five categories from a hierarchical perspective, and various types of death are discussed.

KEYWORDS:

• Vital phenomena
• life
• information
• consciousness
• death
• biological phenomena

Introduction

Scientists have used physical sciences, including quantum physics, to explain various phenomena of life (Schrödinger 1967; Ball 2017; Cabrol 2019). The biological structures of a living being are subject to physical laws; for example, an organism is an open system and must rely on its environment to complete a closed system, and it follows the second law of thermodynamics via exchanges of information (negentropy) and mass and energy (e.g. food). Additionally, it has been argued that the thermodynamics of nonequilibrium systems resulted in the emergence of organized systems, such as organisms (Ball 2017). However, although organisms are subject to physical laws, we view life, information, and consciousness as biological phenomena that are not subject to physical laws. In this paper, we provide unique insight into the very nature of biology. Because we propose that the phenomena of life are not physical phenomena, a different approach would be better for studying these phenomena.

Life and consciousness are usually discussed philosophically, but separately. Classical papers and books on these topics are too numerous to be listed. Today, many people believe that life originated from RNA, which originated from inanimate matter (Higgs and Lehman 2015). However, we argue that life is not the same as living beings (organisms). Life is not matter (such as RNA and DNA). The chemical molecules and histological body of an organism are only a life carrier. Although the cell is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known organisms (Maton 1997), intracellular RNA and DNA molecules are only genetic information carriers. Additionally, any RNA and DNA molecules exterior to a cell are only information carriers and are not considered animate matter or life carriers.

In addition to the close relationship between life and environment, information and consciousness as we know them today are a focus of this article. We show that life, information, and consciousness are all indivisibly linked as phenomena of living beings, similar to how light and sound are linked together as a physical phenomenon of thunderstorms, with information serving as a necessary center piece. The purpose of this endeavor is to provide a different perspective on the understanding of various biological concepts. We take the position that information, life, and consciousness are biological phenomena (not physical phenomena) that are unique and vital to all living beings, and they are indivisibly linked because, if any one is missing from a living being, then all three would be missing, and the living being would become inanimate matter. This observation serves to differentiate what is alive from what is dead.

With the appearance and evolution of organisms, the surface of Earth has become our biosphere, which is occupied by organisms and inanimate matter. Life, information, and consciousness are entities unique to the biosphere. Each of these three entities has its own properties, physiological behaviors, and physiological functions, but they only appear together as a whole in a living being. That is, the biotic phenomena of life, information, and consciousness cannot exist individually in an organism (unlike the physical phenomena of sound and light); they are indivisibly linked and this is reflected in an organism’s biological behavior as a result of the interaction of its internal environment with its external environment.

This paper is observational and conceptual in nature. We start by defining and considering life, information, and consciousness as different phenomena. The inclusion of genetic and non-genetic information is crucial. To interpret the concept of a living being presented here in an attempt to determine what, if any, are the common characteristics of these phenomena that are exhibited by only and all living beings, we describe the experiences and behaviors of human beings, our present-day knowledge of biology, and some organisms’ innate behaviors that we can observe in our daily lives. To aid in our study and understanding of consciousness, we also separated consciousness into five categories and provided examples for each: (in ascending order of complexity) cellular consciousness, multicellular consciousness, neurophysiological consciousness, self-consciousness, and human self-consciousness. Moreover, we link information, life, and consciousness together and explore these phenomena in terms of survival, life, and death, rather than studying them as separate physiological topics.

Because we are providing novel insight into this subject and this paper is not a continuation of previous research projects, background information about traditional perspectives is not emphasized here. Although this paper is not about the origin or purpose of life, the propagation of life (genetic information passing from one generation to the next) is discussed. We suggest that our novel perspectives may be useful for guiding and enhancing future research on these topics.

Discussion

In this section, we discuss, in detail, the subjects described in the Introduction above. The organization of the subsections below involve new concepts and viewpoints proposed by us. We begin our discussion with a definition of phenomenon; then, we explain why life, information, and consciousness are biological phenomena, and explore their relationships in conjunction with environment and matter. Specifically, we explore:

1. The identification and separate treatment of physical and biological phenomena (section 2.1).

2. The separate treatment of life and living being, and identification of matter as a life carrier (section 2.2).

3. The identification and separation of information into genetic and non-genetic information (sections 2.3.1 & 2.3.2).

4. The relationship between life and information (section 2.4).

5. The separation of consciousness into five different categories in ascending order of complexity (sections 2.5.1–2.5.5).

6. The identification of life, information, and consciousness as distinct biological phenomena that are common to only and all organisms (sections 2.2, 2.3, & 2.5).

7. A clear definition of unconsciousness, death, and the disappearance of vital phenomena (sections 2.6 & 2.7).

8. The collective naming of the three vital phenomena that always occur together (section 2.8).

There are many recent publications on related subjects, such as self-organization (Ball 2017), the origin of life (Morowitz and Smith 2007, 2016; Wissner-Gross and Freer 2013; Kauffman 2019), and information and consciousness (Glattfelder 2019; Wiese 2018). However, we provide original concepts and new, separate treatments of concepts that should enhance our understanding of various biological subjects and allow a more focused approach to future research.

Phenomena

Generally speaking, a phenomenon is commonly understood as an observable fact or event, or an object or aspect known through the senses rather than by thought or non-sensuous intuition. The nature of what constitutes a phenomenon, specifically the objective and subjective components, has been philosophically debated (e.g. Bello 2002; Husserl 2012). However, for the purpose of understanding the relationships among life, information, and consciousness, we consider two types of natural phenomena: physical and biological. Examples of physical phenomena are light, sound, and electrical discharge. They can appear separately, but they can also come together in a thunderstorm, carried by rain cloud (inanimate matter). Life, information, and consciousness are distinct biological phenomena that are not subject to physical laws themselves, but that they always occur together and are always carried by matter, which is subject to physical laws.

Life and living being

Existence and being are synonyms when describing life (Koshland 2002; Encyclopedia 2016). There is no unequivocal definition of life, but death is the cessation of all biological functions that sustain an organism. Therefore, it is clear that being alive (having life) occurs during the temporal process of ‘birth–development–maturation (reproduction)–aging–death’ of an organism. We thus consider life as a specific process that advances irreversibly in time. As a process, life is an event that is observable, so life is a phenomenon.

Life is not the same as a living being. The body (histological structures) of a living being (organism) is a physical entity. It has mass, and is a life carrier. This process is a phenomenon that is observable by humans, and is unique to all living beings; we call this the biological phenomenon-of-life process, or life for short.

The process of life must take place on a living being (or, a living being has a life process). A living being has mass, so it is subject to physical and chemical laws. Because life is only associated with a living being, life is specifically a biological phenomenon, and not a physical phenomenon such as a thunderstorm.

Information

Information is what informs and, from a philosophical perspective, typically refers to reduction of uncertainty (Tononi 2008). Information is still in its infancy as a topic of study; however, it has been proposed that information is key to understanding life, even though information is neither matter nor energy (Marks et al. 2013). ‘Inform’ comes from the Latin verb informare (to inform), and it gives form to the mind. That is, information is something learned from a person’s mind (a neurophysiological function-related biological phenomenon), and it is thus related to data and knowledge. Although data are values attributed to parameters, knowledge refers to understanding real or abstract concepts. It is important to point out that, in the case of knowledge, information requires a biotic or cognitive observer to obtain meaning that can help the observer enhance its survival (Gitt 2011).

For example, from the disordered states of their internal and external environments, such as temperature differences, living beings perceive differences and gain necessary information for their survival, and they use temperature information to choose suitable physical environments in which to live. In this example, the temperature of the environment (e.g. 15°C above the freezing temperature of water) is not the same as the heat content of the environment. Therefore, the information (temperature) has no mass and no energy. It is not matter, but matter and energy are information carriers that are used by living organisms to manage their biological functions and activities. Information is a separate and distinct physiologically related biological phenomenon in the biosphere and is a polymorphic biological phenomenon.

As another example, when humans write or read a paper, even though much new information may be obtained, it is not necessary for their brains (the authors’ or readers’) to directly engage in an exchange of mass and energy; although a person may use brain power to decipher information, there is no mass or energy flow between the writer and the reader. Consequently, information is neither matter nor energy (Wiener 1968), but matter, information, and life are indivisibly linked as a process of biotic activity in the biosphere in which we live. Specifically, it is not possible for an organism to leave its environment and live an isolated life. A characteristic of an organism is that, for it to survive, it must interact continuously with its external environment to obtain matter, energy, and information; it must also engage in various cybernetic systems, such as by exchange and feedback of information, to adjust to external environmental stresses (Wingfield et al. 2011). For this reason, the biotic process of living beings must involve mutual interaction and communication of information between the organism and its forever changing external environment (both abiotic and biotic aspects). If either information or external environment were missing, there would be no biotic activity, or no life. Therefore, information provides living beings with knowledge that can be useful for improving their chance of survival or existence.

Information is not the same as signs and signals (e.g. shapes, forms, and patterns). A living being is needed to receive and interpret signs and signals to obtain meaningful information that can enhance survival. Therefore, information is linked to living beings, and therefore life. Information is thus a biological phenomenon (Marijuán 2008) of living beings. It is important to note that it is not possible for information exchanges to take place if there is no organism present, because information is not a physical entity; the body of an organism serves as both a life carrier and information carrier.

Fundamentally, there are two different types of information on Earth, and both are absolutely essential for the existence and continuation of life in our biosphere: genetic and non-genetic information.

Genetic information

Genetic information is the heritable, biological information coded in the nucleotide sequences of DNA or RNA (e.g. certain viruses), such as in chromosomes or plasmids. Every organism is a carrier of genetic information obtained from its ancestors. Genetic information provides knowledge for the continuity of life, and it involves a variety of intercellular information exchanged via intracellular signal transmissions to mediate gene expressions. The basic genetic information network (a genome) contains almost all of the inherited genetic information that is characteristically present in one organism, and is transmitted from parents to their offspring. Genetic information is also present in every individual cell of every organism. Consequently, because matter is an information carrier, the body of an organism is a life carrier. Similarly, the DNA and RNA molecules in the genes of a living cell are carriers of genetic information, but are not the information itself.

Each organism has its own independent genetic source of information (its individual genome). This innate genome records all of the heritable genetic information needed to form an individual organism, and to manipulate and manage the physiological processes and functions of that individual organism. Additionally, because gene and genome properties vary from one individual to another, each individual organism has a unique set of genetic information that makes its identity different from other individuals; that is, each individual has its own genetic identity that forms the basis for DNA-based identification (Kirby 1990). An exception to this is identical twins (but not fraternal twins), which have the exact same genetic profile; all of the anatomical and physiological characteristics of a person that depend on genetic information are initially exactly the same in identical twins. However, even identical twins have increasingly different phenotypes as they age as a result of epigenetic changes that physically alter the DNA structure and result in modified gene expression (Martin 2005).

Because gene and genome properties vary widely from one species to another, each species has a unique set of inherited biological characteristics. Accordingly, the properties of the genetic information networks vary widely from one species to another. Moreover, genetic information is a requirement for living beings. Computers, robots, and computer viruses cannot and do not possess genetic information. Therefore, they are not considered living beings.

Non-genetic information

An example of non-genetic information includes information exchanged between the organisms and the environment. Because every organism originates in an environment, sustaining life also depends on the environment. Every cell in a multicellular organism and every multicellular organism itself has the tendency and ability to regulate its internal conditions, such as the chemical composition of its body fluids, to maintain a stable internal environment to compensate for external environmental changes. This biological homeostasis is an example of non-genetic information acquired as a result of interaction between an organism and its environment (e.g. a signaling exchange between an organism and its external environment that can improve the organism’s chances of survival) (Wingfield et al. 2011). In the natural world, no organism exists in absolute isolation; thus, every organism must interact with the environment and other organisms. An organism’s non-genetic information interactions with its environment are fundamental to the survival of that organism and the functioning of the ecosystem as a whole (Elton 1968).

Information exchanges between organisms must also have other characteristics for them to be consequential (Gitt 1997). As an example, when a bee performs a food dance, (a) the environmental information is well conceived by the biological sender (the bee knows where food is located), (b) the transmission activity has a recognizable intention (the purpose, to tell other bees where the food is located), (c) the sender has a definite group of biological recipients in mind (other bees), and (d) the recipients understand the meaning of the message transmitted by the biological sender (other bees learn where the food is located). Each of these four characteristics is required in non-genetic information exchanges between organisms.

Non-genetic information processing is the exchange of information in any manner detectable by a biotic observer. It is not possible for information exchanges to exist when there is no organism present. For instance, a section of man-made genetic DNA would not have the ability to translate DNA signals as genetic information for biological processes unless it has been transplanted back into an organism (Gibson et al. 2010). That is, inanimate matter may be used by organisms as symbols and signals, but only living beings can understand the purpose and meaning of the genetic symbols and signals. However, inanimate material does not carry genetic information and does not have a living body, so where there is no living being, there is also no environment.

Life and information

About 3.7 billion years ago, there was only inanimate matter on Earth. Later, life evolved as the biological function of an organism carrying with it an internally active, physiologically functioning process. Consequently, life is not the same as organism. The body of an organism is composed of chemical molecules (inanimate matter). Matter is composed of chemical elements, and is what makes up the body, and the external and physical environments of living beings. Therefore, where there is no matter, such as in the subatomic quantum mechanical domain, the phenomenon of life does not exist.

Therefore, life is not a physical substance but a physiological phenomenon of a sequence (a flow) of information transmission activities, and it is only an information interaction process; the body of an organism is both a life carrier and information carrier. We claim that matter, information, and life constitute a biological consortium of the biosphere in which we live. However, as biological phenomena, neither life nor information is subject to the laws of physics.

Life, genetic information, and non-genetic environmental information are all indivisibly linked, with communication (biological signaling exchange and interactions) between genetic and non-genetic information networks serving as a necessary centerpiece in the biosphere. The biotic process of life begins with genotypic information expressed by phenotypic characteristics. Therefore, the biological processes of transcribing DNA molecules to RNA molecules and translating mRNA into a protein are phenomena of both genetic information transmission and chemical reactions. Nevertheless, even though genes and their proteins are always given similar scientific names, there is no way to convert any protein molecules back to DNA or RNA molecules, because life is an irreversible biotic information transmission process. Just as a human body is a life carrier but not life itself, DNA, RNA, and protein molecules in the genes of a living cell are information carriers, but they are not the information itself.

In addition to genetic information transfer, information exchange between an organism and its environment can also result in epigenetic changes via DNA methylation and stable chromosome modifications that change an organism’s gene expression and phenotype (Feil and Fraga 2012). Additionally, acquired (learned) non-genetic exchanges of information exist between an organism and its environment. All organisms must continuously exchange non-genetic information, energy, and matter with the external environment to survive. For example, a plant may perceive information from the external environment that spring is here and it is time for growth.

Extra-cellular molecules carrying genetic information are not the same as life carriers. A preserved hair follicle, for example, may carry certain information, but the preserved hair follicle is only a physical information carrier, not a life process carrier, because it is no longer a viable part of an organism. In this case, the physical information cannot be directly used for biological processes (Gibson et al. 2010). It is important to note that the cell is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known organisms (Maton 1997), and any molecules exterior to a cell are not considered to be animate matter.

Consciousness

Various perspectives on the nature of consciousness are commonly debated, such as illusionism (the idea that consciousness is an illusion), dualism (the mind and body are separate entities; initially proposed by Descartes), and panpsychism (the mind is fundamental and ubiquitous to reality) (e.g. Chalmers 1995; Brüntrup and Jaskolla 2000; Dennett 2016). However, in general, consciousness can be understood to be a phenomenon or physiological state of an organism being aware of its own existence (with each individual organism having a unique set of genetic information that forms its identity) and the information network in its surroundings. According to integrated information theory, consciousness is common among biological organisms and corresponds to a system’s ability to integrate information (Tononi 2004). Features of consciousness include awareness of thoughts, memories, feelings, and sensations of its environment (internal and external), and, in humans, the cognitive details of somatic and sensory interpretations. Additionally, purposive behavior of organisms (such as seeking light or food) is also related to consciousness (Dawkins 1989).

In ‘How to study consciousness scientifically’ (Searle 1998), R. Searle wrote:

We know as a matter of fact that brain processes cause consciousness … first, consciousness and indeed all mental phenomena are caused by lower level neurobiological processes in the brain; and, second, consciousness and other mental phenomena are higher level features of the brain … there is nothing to consciousness except the behavior of the neurons. There is nothing else there.

Therefore, although some aspects of consciousness, such as subjectivity, are challenging to address using traditional, objective scientific methods (i.e. the hard problem of consciousness) (Nagel 1974; Chalmers 1995), there are several aspects that are nothing more than instinctive physiological function and behavior of neurons, which are considered easy problems that can be addressed by science. We suggest that the consciousness of all organisms (every human being, firefly, or amoeba) originates from an individual cell (e.g. a neuron).

In July, 2012, during the Consciousness in Human and Nonhuman Animals Conference in Cambridge, UK, a group of scientists announced and signed a declaration with the following conclusions:

Convergent evidence indicates that non-human animals have the neuro-anatomical, neuro-chemical, and neuro-physiological substrates of conscious states along with the capacity to exhibit intentional behaviors. Consequently, the weight of evidence indicates that humans are not unique in possessing the neurological substrates that generate consciousness. Non-human animals, including all mammals and birds, and many other creatures, including octopuses, also possess these neurological substrates. (Low 2012)

Based on the abovementioned declaration, ‘to exhibit intentional behaviors’ can be considered the basic biotic phenomenon of conscious behavior. The behavioral character is formed in part by the genome and in part by information exchanges of the internal and external environments (Wingfield et al. 2011). Therefore, consciousness is a biological phenomenon of organisms and is inherent to all living beings.

Generally speaking, there are at least five categories of consciousness: cellular consciousness, multicellular consciousness, neurophysiological consciousness, self-consciousness, and human self-consciousness, in ascending order of complexity. An organism that exhibits neurophysiological consciousness as its highest level of consciousness, for example, would also exhibit the lower levels of multicellular consciousness and cellular consciousness, but would not exhibit the higher-level self-consciousness and human self-consciousness. These categories are briefly described below.

Cellular consciousness

Cellular consciousness is an innate awareness that includes behavioral memory and physiological function. It is a basic state exhibited by all living beings, from cells to human beings. Every cell of an organism and every individual multicellular organism must monitor its external environment and adjust its own internal conditions to improve its chances of survival. Therefore, each individual organism must be alert and remain in a physiological state of consciousness (Theobald 2010).

One example of cellular consciousness can be observed in biological homeostasis, which is the innate ability of all organisms to seek and maintain a condition of equilibrium or stability within their own internal environments in the face of changes in the external environment (e.g. sweating to reduce temperature). Each organism has an independent, internal information network that allows it to exist within a fluctuating environment. Consequently, each and every organism is living in an innate state of consciousness, which is a phenomenon of awareness of its own identity relative to the environment.

Richard Dawkins wrote in The Selfish Gene:

The evolution of the capacity to simulate seems to have culminated in subjective consciousness. … Genes were the ancestors of life. They were our founding fathers. They are in you and in me. They created us, body and mind, and their preservation is the ultimate rationale for our existence. As far as the gene is concerned, its allies are its deadly rivals, but other genes are just a part of its environment. The gene pool is just the new sort of soup where it makes its living. The ‘environment’ of a gene consists largely of other genes, each of which is itself being selected for its ability to cooperate with its environment of other genes. (Dawkins 1989)

Thus, the basic, instinctive, and conscious behavior (e.g. the physiological status of intention to survive within an environment) might originate in cells at the innate genetic information level.

Cellular consciousness can also be observed in unicellular organisms. Many unicellular organisms, such as phagotrophic protists, use phagocytosis to feed (e.g. Entamoeba histolytica can phagocytose red blood cells). As in phagocytic immune cells, the resulting phagosome may be merged with lysosomes that contain digestive enzymes and form a phagolysosome. The food particles will then be digested, which helps facilitate the survival of the unicellular organisms.

Multicellular consciousness

Multicellular consciousness is a higher state of consciousness exhibited by all multicellular organisms, and multicellular consciousness generally mirrors the cellular consciousness observed in unicellular organisms.

The multicellular consciousness of an organism may be influenced by a collective conscious experience, such as by biological morphogenesis. For example, a group of separate unicellular slime mold amoeboid organisms may self-organize and form a large multicellular individual organism (fruiting body) when the general living conditions are unfavorable for the solitary unicellular individuals to survive separately (Bonner 1980). The fruiting body is no more than a collection of solitary unicellular amoebae encased in a thin slime sheath. However, it has various unique behaviors and functions. Therefore, a fruiting body lives in a state of multicellular consciousness. In this case, each independent unicellular amoeba lives with its own internal environment inside its cell wall; once they form into a fruiting body, they become parts of the fruiting body’s internal environment, but each organism inside the fruiting body still has to behave and interact with its neighbors, and lives in its own state of cellular consciousness. This is a self-organizing, innate, and genetically determined intentional behavioral pattern, and the ability to react, respond, and self-modify to adapt to the environment promotes both unicellular and multicellular organisms’ existence.

Multicellular bodies without neurological structures may have behaviors similar to a large school of fish. To maintain its position inside the school, each fish must constantly gauge and monitor the positions and velocities of its neighbors. Each individual within the school is aware of its own identity and internal environment to appropriately interact with its external environment (neighbors). However, the whole school behaves like an independent individual to provide defense against predators and increase hydrodynamic swimming efficiency for the whole group (Wingfield et al. 2011).

Another example can be observed in phototropism, which is growth in response to a light stimulus. Phototropism is most often observed in plants, but can also occur in other multicellular organisms such as fungi. Several signaling molecules help the plant determine from where the light source is coming, which enables the plant to grow toward the light for its survival. Therefore, phototropism is an example of multicellular consciousness.

Moreover, every species is capable of multicellular regeneration (Gabor and Hotchkiss 1979; Carlson 2007), and there are some human organs and tissues that regenerate after injury, such as the liver, fingertips, and endometrium. Regeneration is a biological process that causes a multicellular organism to regain its original form and shape. Pattern formation in the morphogenesis of an animal is regulated by genetic induction factors that induce cellular response after damage has occurred (Akimenko et al. 1996). Consequently, we are unable to rule out regeneration as a phenomenon of multicellular consciousness.

Recently, studies have shown that 6% to almost half (Bunzel et al. 1992) of heart transplant recipients had potentially acquired some of the donor’s personality characteristics along with the donors’ heart (Inspector et al. 2004). This phenomenon may provide evidence that multicellular donor organs that live in a recipient’s body retain their own original state of multicellular consciousness, especially if we consider the donor’s heart to be a viable parasite or grafting scion. Additionally, it is well known that a branch of a plant can be transplanted and grow into a new plant, retaining its original characteristics. These observations of multicellular consciousness may provide insight that could help guide future research on grafting and transplants.

Neurophysiological consciousness

Neurophysiological consciousness is a phenomenon exhibited by only living beings with neurological systems with or without cerebral cortices. This state of consciousness is a state of neurophysiological functioning and a biotic behavioral phenomenon that has its origin in neurons.

Neurophysiological conscious behavior is an innate awareness of events in the present without any sense of past experiences or learning. For example, an antlion (Myrmeleon) larva excavates a conical pit in the sand with its jaw opened wide and protruding from the pit, and waits for crawling insects to inadvertently fall into the pit. After a victim’s bodily fluid is gradually siphoned out, the dried carcass is flicked out of the pit, and the larva is ready for another prey (Burton 1975). There does not seem to be any way that the antlion could have learned this physiological pattern of survival behavior from the present external environment or other individuals. Therefore, antlion larvae live in a state of neurophysiological consciousness.

If the viewpoint is accepted that consciousness is a basic and instinctive behavioral phenomenon of every cell of a multicellular organism and every multicellular organism itself, a corollary would be that the evolution of the life system on Earth is also a behavioral phenomenon of consciousness. Furthermore, because all cells, tissues, and organs in our bodies are living in the same conscious state, our organs and limbs live in their own states of multicellular consciousness in addition to being managed by the neurological system. For example, phantom limb pain is related to neurophysiological consciousness. When the nerves lose signals from the missing limb, the peripheral nerves transmit information to the cerebral cortex. The peripheral nerves send pain signals as a typical response to the cerebral cortex, which is aware that something is wrong.

Self-consciousness

Self-consciousness is categorically the highest state of consciousness achieved by non-human beings. It is a phenomenon of consciousness exhibited only by living beings with a well-developed neurological system (i.e. with cerebral cortices). Self-consciousness is a feature of the cerebral cortex, a state of physiological functioning, and a biotic behavioral phenomenon that originates from all cells, including neurons, at the innate genetic information level, which is prearranged by the genome.

A biotic system is a self-organizing system. Self-organization refers to the emergence of an overall order in time and space of a given system that results from the collective interactions of its individual components, and it is a process by which patterns at the global level cannot be understood simply by examining the properties of the system’s components in isolation (Camazine et al. 2003, p. 8). However, as a part of the whole, we cannot objectively observe all features of the natural environment.

For example, in a school of fish, each fish bases its behavior on its perception of the positions and velocities of its nearest neighbors, rather than the knowledge of the global behavior of the whole school. Similarly, each individual in a group of fireflies flashes at its own characteristic frequency like an oscillator, but interacts with its neighbors nonetheless (Camazine et al. 2003, p. 155). Surely, each individual fish and firefly is awake and aware (conscious) of its external environment.

Additionally, self-consciousness can also be observed in the human cerebral cortex. Each neuron acts as an intrinsic oscillator that is conscious of its own characteristic state, and each neuron also interacts with the other neurons in the same cerebral cortex.

Human self-consciousness

Human self-consciousness is hierarchically the highest state of consciousness, and is achieved by humans only. For example, ‘cogito ergo sum’ (‘I think, therefore I am’) refers only to human self-consciousness. Human self-consciousness involves an awareness of self as an object. For example, every morning when we wake up, we realize that we are living human beings. Searle (1998) wrote:

Consciousness, as I am using the word, refers to any state of sentience or awareness, but self-consciousness, in which the subject is aware of himself or herself, is a very special form of consciousness, perhaps peculiar to humans and the higher animals.

Human self-consciousness is an acute sense of self-awareness and is the knowledge of oneself as a conscious being, especially feeling undue awareness of oneself, one’s appearance, or one’s actions (e.g. embarrassed, uncomfortable, uneasy, and nervous). That is, human self-consciousness is a concept that involves the human cultural environment, but, from a biological perspective, it is nothing more than the highest state of the physiological phenomenon of consciousness. Human self-consciousness is a neurophysiological state of the human brain in which the multicellular cerebral cortex carries out normal learning and thinking activities at the highest state of consciousness. Self-consciousness is an instinctive experience, but human self-consciousness involves human culture, and human culture is acquired. Therefore, human self-consciousness is both an instinctive and acquired experience.

Owing to genetic differences, organisms with lower states of consciousness, like chimpanzees, have not developed the biotic ability to achieve the highest state of cerebral cortical function exhibited by human beings. Chimpanzees live in a natural environment, do not have human language, and are unable to write; therefore, they are unable to pass their knowledge from one generation to the next like human beings (Savage-Rumbaugh 1994). In fact, chimpanzees do not have human-like culture and do not live in a civilized society, because they do not have the intellectual ability to form their own cultural and civil environment like humans. Therefore, chimpanzees are not able to experience the highest state of consciousness (human self-consciousness).

Conversely, humans no longer live in natural, social, and cultural environments similar to those of chimpanzees. The chimpanzees’ living experiences, reasoning, and perceptual behaviors are completely different from those of human beings. Therefore, it is not possible for humans to know what it is like to be a chimpanzee, because, genetically, the human cerebral cortex is unable to completely interact with the chimpanzees’ acquired social and cultural environment.

Developmental progression of human states of consciousness

The human brain has different neurophysiological states, just as matter has fluid, solid, and other states. Prior to birth, when the fetus is still living in the womb, the fetus and its brain are no different, anatomically and physiologically, from any other organ of the mother’s. Immediately after birth, once the baby’s oxygen supply is no longer provided by the mother’s circulatory system, the neonatal baby first takes air into the lungs. The brain and its cerebral cortex have learned, for the first time, information from a new, external environment by means of the neonatal physiological respiratory function. Then, the neonate acquires a higher neurophysiological state of consciousness and may behave at a hierarchically higher state. Later, by interacting with his/her human cultural environment, and through teaching and learning behavior, the cerebral cortex of the infant gradually becomes aware, and this activity results in the hierarchically highest neurophysiological state of human self-consciousness.

Unconsciousness

A phenomenon of clinical unconsciousness occurs when a patient’s cerebral cortex is damaged or is affected by illness or drugs, and that patient’s cerebral cortex is unable to control the abnormal, neuropathological behavior. While the normal cerebral cortex’s neurophysiological function is being suppressed, the neuron cells are still viable, and the unconscious brain functions only at the basic, subcortical state of consciousness. That is, the cerebral cortex has malfunctioned in its thinking or learning capability, and an unconscious patient does not mentally recognize the external world. Consequently, unconsciousness only means that consciousness is clinically suppressed; it does not mean the termination of the phenomenon of consciousness, which would lead to death.

Death

Understanding the three vital biological phenomena could lead to a new way to identify what is alive and what is dead. It is important to note that different aspects of the vital phenomena are impacted by the different types of death. For example, biological death of an individual organism is the irreversible cessation of all biological phenomena (information, life, and consciousness) of that organism, which then becomes inanimate matter. Biological death is initiated at the cellular level and is a pathological process that begins with the destruction of the normal cellular structures and is due to the cessation of normal, active biochemical processes in the cells. In humans, cellular death is an example of cessation of cellular consciousness. Alternatively, organ death is an example of cessation of multicellular consciousness, and brain death is an example of cessation of neurophysiological consciousness.

It is important to note that brain death is only a clinical diagnosis; it is not complete biological death at the cellular level, because some of the cells, tissue, and organs from the cadaver may still be viable and are available for transplant, and all viable cells are carriers of information, consciousness, and life. After biological death, human self-consciousness does not exist because there is not a viable cerebral cortex and all the other cells of the cadaver are dead. Therefore, in biological death, there is irreversible disruption of all cellular states of consciousness (Bernat 2006), but in brain death, some low levels of consciousness may continue in other viable histological cells.

Vital phenomena

Life, information, and consciousness are separate and distinct phenomena, each with its own characteristics. Therefore, life is not the same as information, and information is not the same as consciousness. However, all living beings, from a single cell to a human being, must display all three of these biological phenomena. If any of these three phenomena are missing, a living being would become inanimate matter.

These three phenomena should not be considered ingredients of a living being, like a body that is made of chemical molecules. Rather, these phenomena are characteristics of all living beings and only living beings, and they are displays of innate behavior of all living beings (which results from genetic information passing from one generation to another). They are indivisibly linked in living beings, and these three phenomena always occur together simultaneously. Additionally, these phenomena are observed by human beings and are not aspects created by thought or non-sensuous intuition (see section 2.1). These phenomena appeared only after the Earth became a biosphere. This unique set of three phenomena may therefore be collectively called ‘the vital phenomena,’ and the observation and interpretation of the unique and vital characteristics of the vital phenomena can provide a novel approach to identifying what is alive and what is dead.

Importantly, the vital phenomena should not be confused with vital signs. Vital signs (i.e. clinical measurements of pulse rate, temperature, respiration rate, and blood pressure) are applicable to human beings and some upper level animals. However, the vital phenomena are common to all organisms and are biological, and not physical, phenomena.

Additionally, a computer virus is a software information program that, when executed, replicates by reproducing itself or infecting other computer programs by modifying them. However, a computer virus is not a viable organism, because it does not process genetic information, and it is incapable of making the carrier computer go through the birth–development–maturation (reproduction)–aging–death process of life. Similarly, a robot is an inanimate machine, particularly one programable by a computer. Robots are not self-organized, do not carry genetic information, and have never gone through the process of life. Therefore, we do not consider computer viruses and robots to be viable or exhibit the vital phenomena.

Concluding remarks

Integration of findings

Beginning with the somewhat unorthodox but justified viewpoints that life is not the same as living being and that biological phenomena are not subject to physical laws, we identified the vital phenomena as a unique set of three biological phenomena that are common to all organisms. In studying their characteristics, we found that it greatly enhances our understanding of information when we divided it into genetic information and non-genetic information, with the latter interacting with the physical environment as a means for survival of an organism. Similarly, by cataloging consciousness into five different levels according to its complexity, it is much easier to gain insight into the subject. Finally, we reviewed how the vital phenomena are related to death, which occurs at the end of the life process of an organism. It is easy to see that different stages of death (e.g. brain death, organ death, and cell death) are closely associated with the permanent loss of various categories of consciousness (neurophysiological consciousness, multicellular consciousness, and cellular consciousness, respectively) and the corresponding permanent loss of information, illustrating the indivisibly linked relationships of the vital phenomena to the very end.

Limitations

We identified the vital phenomena, which are the three characteristic phenomena common to only and all living beings. However, there were several limitations to our work.

First, we followed the commonly accepted definition of phenomenon (see section 2.1) as an observable fact or event, or an object or aspect known through the senses rather than by thought or non-sensuous intuition; however, we acknowledge that the nature of phenomena is philosophically debated.

Moreover, we have not proven, nor are we suggesting, exclusivity of the three biological phenomena. In the future, other researchers may find new biological phenomena (e.g. intelligence) that are also common to all organisms.

Finally, we have made observations and interpretations of life, information, and consciousness, and their characteristics and relationships to each other and matter and environment; however, we have not explained the reason or origin of these phenomena. For example, the life process is continuous. Matter (such as protein, RNA and DNA molecules) is nothing but a carrier of the life process. Life reproduces from life, and all the organisms in the biosphere, from individual single cells to plants and human beings, exist as a result of an extremely large network of genetic information being propagated. However, we have yet to determine how that information network originated. Future research to determine the origin of aspects of the vital phenomena, such as the information network, would help better elucidate the dynamics of the life process.

Author contribution statement

Both authors have made significant contribution to this article.

Contribution to the field statement

The new concepts and viewpoints presented in this paper are about the very nature of biology and include, but are not limited to, the following: (a) the identification and divided treatment of physical and biological phenomena; (b) the claim that, although biological phenomena may be observed, they cannot be explained by physical laws; (c) the separate treatment of life and living being, and the consideration of matter as a life carrier; (d) the identification and separation of information into genetic and non-genetic information; (e) the separation of consciousness into five different categories with hierarchical levels of complexity; (f) the identification of life, information, and consciousness as distinct biological phenomena that are common to only and all organisms; (g) a clear definition of death, the disappearance of these three phenomena, and (h) the collective naming of these three phenomena that always occur together as ‘the vital phenomena’.

These original concepts and new, separate treatments should enhance our understanding of various biological subjects and allow a more focused approach to future research. Although these novel concepts and ideas may be considered a hypothesis, they are supported by the experiences and behaviors of human beings, our present-day knowledge of biology, and organisms’ simple behaviors that we can observe in our daily lives.

Acknowledgements

The authors have no external funding source to acknowledge. We are deeply humbled by, and are very appreciative of, the suggestions and information provided by the reviewers to improve the manuscript. We thank Mallory Eckstut, PhD, from Edanz Group (https://en-author-services.edanzgroup.com/) for editing a draft of this manuscript.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).