Review of chicken productive and reproductive performance and its challenges in Ethiopia

Abstract

This review gathered information about the reproduction and production performance of indigenous, exotic chickens and hybrids in Ethiopia. The indigenous chicken egg production performance under the backyard system within the ranges of 30–80 eggs per hen annually, with an average egg weight of 38–45 g, laying 10–15.7 eggs per month. Indigenous chicken eggs had a hatchability rate of 78.6–85.8%, however more than 40% of chicks died before reaching sexual maturity. At hatch, local chickens weigh 27.1–28.8 g, whereas at maturity they weigh 1300–1600 and 987–1300 g, respectively, and indigenous male and female chickens reach sexual maturity within 23.48–26 and 20–28 weeks, respectively. Each exotic chicken produces 135–185 eggs per year in the village with a 43–52.5 g weight, but it may rise to 250 eggs with a 60 g weight in the marketable sector. Exotic chickens were low in hatchability, 39.3–76.1%. While their cross laid 33 eggs in 3.1 clutches in 31.6–38 days and their eggs weighed 40–49 g with 67.9–85.8% hatchability. Cross-breed chickens and exotics produce a weight of 27–40.1 and 35.2–38.8 g respectively.

KEYWORDS:

• Chickens
• egg
• productive
• performances
• reproductive

Introduction

The village chickens are very important to humans as a means of support and poverty alleviation. They are identified to possess desirable characteristics like thermo tolerance, resistance to diseases, better egg productivity, and hard eggshell, high fertility, hatchability rates, and meat flavor and also have a high carcass percentage (Yemane et al. 2014). With a large population size of 65 million, chickens make up the largest benefit in terms of number compared to other livestock genetic resources in Ethiopia and play a big role in human nutrition and sources of income (Bibi et al. 2021). Village-managed indigenous chickens generate 95.86% of total national poultry output (eggs and meat), with well-developed exotic breed chickens accounting for 1.35% and hybrids accounting for 2.79% in Ethiopia (Gezahegn 2015). Poultry production, as an essential sector of agricultural production, has a significant contribution to the world, which is evident from the recent increase in demand for poultry, meat, and eggs in fast-growing urban cities and, therefore, the increasing number of economic poultry farms around urban and peri-urban areas (Nkukwana 2018). The indigenous chickens are considered very low in egg production performance, attributed to their poor genomic potential, and for this reason, efforts are needed to familiarize different exotic chick strains with household farming methods in Ethiopia. Among these breeds of exotic chicks, Rhode Island Red, New Hampshire, and White Leghorn were introduced to Ethiopia and widely investigated later in the 1950s (Hailu et al. 2012; Sambo et al. 2015; Weyuma et al. 2015). Despite this intensification and upgrading of the potential of birds, the per capita annual poultry, meat, and egg consumption in Ethiopia is still low and the national average is more than 0.12 and 0.14 kg, respectively (Tshovhote 2015). On the other hand, Yosefe et al. (2016) reported in Ethiopia, the annual egg and chick meat intake was around 2.85 kg of chick meat and 57 eggs per year. Particularly in low-income households, both chicken meat and eggs are preferable sources of cash income. In addition, in other reports, the consumption of eggs annually in Ethiopia is 57 eggs or 2.29 kg and that of chicken meat is 1.87 kg.

Poultry is the leading livestock species worldwide, estimated at greater than 30% of the entire animal protein requirements (Kebede et al. 2017). The relative importance of chicken to protein production in the world is estimated to rise to 40%, growing in the less developed world (Milkias 2016). In Ethiopia, chicken production is a mainstay of animal agriculture, where human food production is comparatively fast, initial capital investment is low, and uses are often made by using available household labor. The sector shows a clear distinction between traditional, low-input systems and improved production systems using relatively advanced technology, on the other hand. In the outdated system of chick production, greater than 90% of the national poultry, egg and meat output is from local poultry (Chaimiso 2018). In Ethiopia, chicken added significant socio-economic impacts on food security, generating income, and religious and other purposes (Gulilat et al. 2021). Poultry production in Ethiopia has a significant role in the country's economy, representing 98.5% and 99.2%, respectively, of chicken egg and meat production.

Many researchers believe that chick production is crucial to poverty alleviation in rural low-income societies and the demand for more chick eggs and meat in the future is clear in developing countries due to the increasing human population and the expected increase in income. This needs the supply of those products in adequate amounts to satisfy the protein needs of several populations in developing countries (Rajkumar et al. 2019).

The ultimate goal was to encourage small-scale production of exotic chick strains in the agricultural farming population and to upgrade the indigenous chicks by hybridizing their local hens with exotic males. However, the improved yield of the poultry subsector by using exotic breeds in Ethiopia did not become a maintainable opportunity, mostly because this strategy frequently tackled the problem of birds not being adopted by the poultry farms due to environmental and socio-economic problems (Habte et al. 2015). Following this failure, many researchers have conducted research on cross-breed, exotic and indigenous chicken productivity potential and associated constraints in many parts of Ethiopia separately to design breeding programs. However, the results are not presented in an organized form. Therefore, this review aimed to gather information about cross-breed, exotic and indigenous chicken productivity and associated constraints in Ethiopia.

Chicken population and its Current status in Ethiopia

Based on Goshu et al. (2015), the world’s chicken population was about 16.2 billion. Low-income countries produced 67,544,718 metric tons of poultry meat and 57,747,861 metric tons of poultry eggs, accounting for 71.6% of the total. Although Ethiopia's population was predictable at 49.3 million, 2.32, 0.38%, and 97.3 were hybrids, exotics, and indigenous that produced a significant amount of poultry eggs and meat, respectively. The country also possesses about 60% of the entire chicken population of the East Africa subcontinent (Chaimiso 2018). The poultry population, on the other hand, was estimated to be 42 million based on the (Hiluf et al. 2018) census, excluding pastoral and agro-pastoral areas. Furthermore, the entire chicken population of Ethiopia is estimated at about 42 million, which comprises 0.55%, 2.84%, and 96.61% of the entire poultry were hybrid and exotic indigenous, respectively. Ethiopia is one of the few countries with a significantly large population of chickens, which is expected to be about 56.5 million chickens, out of which 99% are local chickens.

History of exotic chickens in Ethiopia

Exotic poultry (Rhode Island Red, New Hemisphere, and White Leghorn) were introduced to Jimma and Alemaya College of Agriculture in different years under a USAID project to increase meat and egg productivity (Sisay 2017). To increase the potential of indigenous poultry, extra exotic breeds were introduced like (White Leghorn and Bovans Brown, Rhode Island Red, New Hemisphere, etc.) hybridizing with indigenous poultry (Chaimiso 2018). In addition, there are legally introduced chicks to Ethiopia for commercial purposes, such as BB (hybrid of RIR(cock) and Light Sussex (hen)), Isa Brown (hybrid of Rhode Island Red(hen)) and Rhode Island White (cock), Babcock and Fayomi were found to survive well. The high adaptability and friendly nature of these birds have created a great demand in Ethiopia.

Chicken productivity performance

Productivity of exotic poultry in the commercial sector

The output differences between the backyard system using local scavenging hens and the commercial sector, which uses exotic breeds in confinement, were astonishing. A typical exotic layer can produce over 200 eggs per annum/hen and, from exotic breeds, 27 eggs per hen and 250 eggs per year with 60g of egg weight, as reported by Fitsum et al. (2017). Thus, for those with capital to finance, feed, housing, and health inputs, the resulting output could be profitable. However, it is estimated that the commercial sector comprises only 1–2% of the nation’s chickens in Ethiopia (Gebremariam and Girma 2019). White Leghorn chickens laid 173 and 140.20 eggs per hen in different study regions, and RIR, FA, BB, and IB chickens laid about 185,144,292.4 and 276.1 at different study sites shown at Table 1.

Table 1. Productivity, egg weights, and hatchability rates of exotic chickens in Ethiopia.

Breed type	Egg No./hen/yr	Egg weight/ g/	Hatchability Rate}	Study Site	Author/s
WLH	173, 140.20	52.1	76.1	Tigray region, North Gondar, Zone	Getu et al. (2014); Matawork (2018)
RHODE ISLAND RED	185, 118.6	52.5	67.9	Tigray region	Getu et al. (2014); Matawork (2018); Litigebew et al. (2021)
Fayoumi	144	43.5	85.8	Tigray region North Gondar zone	Getu et al. (2014)
B.Brown	292.4, 266.32	57.7,60.27		Mekelle, Debre zeit	Harpal Singh et al. (2013); Yirgu et al. (2018)
Isa Brown	276.1	58.75		Debre Zeit	Yirgu et al. (2018)

WLH – White Leghorn, RIR-Rhode Island Red, Brown – Bovans Brown.

Performance of exotic chickens managed by smallholder farmers

As described by Demeke (2014), in the middle highlands of Ethiopia, the importing of exotic breeds from different agricultural communities in numerous numbers and using different methods (viz., through the introduction of cockerels, pullets, or fertile eggs) had minimal impact on upgrading the genetic status of village stock, because parallel improvements in feeding, housing, and health care were not considered. White Leghorn chickens can produce 82 eggs/chick based on estimation under scavenging environments for 20 weeks with extra feed supplements (Dana et al. 2015). The average egg that was produced per year in Northern Ethiopia was 144, 185, and 173 for Fayoumi, Rhode Island Red, and White Leghorn, respectively, with 43, 52.5, and 52.1 grams of egg weight, respectively. Additionally, Getu et al. (2014) reported 185 eggs for RIR breeds in Northern Ethiopia. In activity to reinforce partnerships and alter traditional approaches to increasing rural community production by making use of commercialization potential in suitable areas of Ethiopia, BB breeds and day-old poultry were disseminated to growers in the Ada'a, Lume, and Akaki regions of Ethiopia.

The annual eggs/bird is anticipated within the range of 60–70% of the performance recommended by the breeder company for the top standard management systems. Another author indicated a really positive prospect of profiting at 20 weeks of egg production (about 40 weeks of bird's age) and identified chicken as a potential source of income for rural smallholders in the Adaa, Lume, and Akaki regions of Eastern Shewa, Ethiopia (Berima and Ishag 2015).

Egg production performance

Less than 5% of domestic poultry in Ethiopia are globally documented breeds, and every indigenous native population really includes chickens with the maximum amount of morphologic or genetic diversity. In Ethiopia, the bulk of poultry raised is indigenous ecotypes, which display a large difference in body position, comb type, plumage color, and productivity (Belay et al. 2018). Rural small-scale farmers use indigenous chickens under poor management practices in poultry production, and the output from this outdated production sector is low compared to the contribution of exotic and hybrid chicken populations (Hinsemu et al. 2018). A study at the Assela livestock farm showed that the mean production potential for indigenous birds in Arsi under scavenging conditions was 34 eggs per hen yearly, with a mean egg weight of 38 g. The egg production of local poultry is 30–60 eggs per year/hen, weighing 38 g under rural community management conditions, but this figure might be increased to 80 eggs when birds are given improved nutrition, housing and health care (Woldegiorgiss 2015). Similar studies indicated that the typical annual egg production of a native chicken was 40 eggs under the farmer’s management, but higher egg production than the 54.3 eggs/year/hen of local poultry (Getiso et al. 2017), described the yearly egg production potential of native poultry in Ethiopia at Wolita Agricultural Development unit was extended to between 30–60 eggs under a household free-range production system. The typical egg production of local birds was 34 eggs per hen per annum with an average egg weight of 38 g.

Local chickens produced 54.3 eggs per annum with 42.2 g of egg weight managed by smallholder farmers in Northern Ethiopia and a total egg production/hen/year of 60, 53, and 55 in the Bure, Fogera, and Dale districts of Ethiopia reported by Getu et al. (2014). In Northwest Ethiopia, indigenous poultry yields 59.5 eggs per annum under household management environments (Tadesse 2015a). A considerable number of eggs, produced 78 egg/year, were reported by Metanne and Afardual (2015) for local hens in Morocco, whereas the general mean egg size of local chickens in Tanzania is 44.1 g. According to Tadesse (Getu and Birhan 2015), the poor productivity of indigenous chicken under the household management system is characterized by high chick mortality before they reach around 8 weeks of age. Indigenous poultry is the consequence of uncontrolled breeding between various indigenous poultry ecotypes, lacking organized breeding methods.

Egg weight performance

The mean egg weight of indigenous poultry around Arsi district, Ethiopia, was 38 g (Kassa et al. 2021) and a mean egg weight of 42 and 49 g for naked-neck chicks and their F1 crosses with NH breeds, respectively, reared in a better managed environment. The average egg weight of 42.5, 58.0, 43.7, and 45.4 g. for Fayoumi, Rhode Island Red (RIR) Fayoumi, and indigenous white chicken crosses and Rhode Island Red and indigenous white chicken crosses, respectively, was reported by Kamel (2016). In the household management system in Ethiopia, egg weight was measured as 52.1, 52.5, and 43 g for White Leghorn, Rhode Island Red (RIR), and Fayoumi, from matured chickens respectively. The egg weight of Local Kei, Fayoumi-cross (local chickens with their F1 cross of the Fayoumi breed) and Rhode Island Red-cross (local chickens with their F1 cross of the Rhode Island Red) were 38.3, 40 and 44.2 g under farmer’s management conditions (Argaw 2015). From Table 1, the egg weight/g of different exotic breeds has different egg weights. From the table below, IB and BB have 58.75, 60.27 g, and White Leghorn, Rhode Island Red, and FA have 52.1, 52.5, and 43.5 respectively.

Clutch size and length

In Ethiopia, local household poultry lay around 36 eggs in three clutches and 12–13 eggs per clutch per annum and an equivalent ends in about 16 days (Tesfay et al. 2018). The typical number of clutches per annum per hen reported by Litigebew et al. (2021) in Northern Ethiopia was 3.2 for indigenous poultry extending from 2 to 5 with a mean clutch length of 21.6 days, 3.1 for cross-breed hens ranging from 18 to 40 days, and 3.2 for exotic breeds with an average clutch length of 44.4 days. In Western Ethiopia, there are 2.67 average clutches per annum, a 10.07 mean number of eggs per clutch, and a 27.9 day average length of a single clutch. In Southern Ethiopia, there are 4.6 clutches per hen/year and 15.4 eggs per clutch per hen. Consistent with Alemu (2020), the typical length of one egg-laying period per hen is expected to be about 21, 38, and 159 days for local, hybrid, and exotic breeds, respectively. According to Misba and Aberra (2015) reported 15.7, 13.2, and 14.9 eggs/hen/clutch in the Bure, Fogera, and Dale regions of Ethiopia, respectively, and 13.6 average egg production per hen per clutch of local hens and recorded 4.3 number of clutch periods per annum under farmer management conditions in Metekel, Northwest Ethiopia.

Hatchability and survival rate

The mean number of eggs fixed for incubation per clutch of poultry in Northern Ethiopia was 10.2 eggs with a hatchability of 85.8% for indigenous eggs and 78.97% for cross-breed eggs and 78.6% hatchability for local eggs from an equivalent place. In Bure Wenda, western Ethiopia, local eggs had a hatchability of 82.6% (Belay et al. 2018). In southern Ethiopia, Alemneh and Getabalew (2019) reported 73.7%, 54.7%, and 59.0% hatchability of total eggs set for Fayoumi-cross, RIR-cross, and native Kei, respectively, while the hatchability of productive eggs was lower at both 73.7% and 54.7% (The eggs that were laid in the presence of a rooster hen) was 85.8%, 80.4%, and 67.9% of Fayoumi-cross, local Kei, and Rholde Island Red-crosses, respectively. The average hatchability percentage was 67.9, 78.6, 39.3, and 76.1 for Fayoumi, Indigenous, Rhode Island Red, and White Leghorn, respectively, in Northern Ethiopia. An average number of 14.74 eggs laid down per hen and 84.7% hatchability for local chickens in Northwest Ethiopia (Misba and Aberra 2015). A hatchability gain of 13 egg sets per hen of 82.6% and 89.1% for Ethiopia, respectively (Kamel 2016), and 19% and 35% mortality between the primary day and eight weeks old, and 5% and 12% mortality between the 4th and 12th months for Fayoumi and indigenous white chicken cross and Rhode Island Red and indigenous white chicken cross, respectively. The survival rates of chickens reaching the grower stage of 8 weeks were 65.8% and 63.7% for local and cross-breed chickens, respectively. Similarly, different authors reported that the average annual mortality of chickens was 3.98 for local, 3.7 for cross-breed and 3.2% for exotic breed chicks in rural community production was reported by Kamel (2016). Because the scavenging breeding method is characterized by high chick mortality before they reach around 8 weeks old. The hatchability rate of Fayoumi is an exotic breed with a higher hatchability rate of 85.8 than White Leghorn and Rhode Island Redat 76.1 and 67.9, Table 1.

From Table 2, the mortality rate of chickens of the Fayoumi breed is 67.9, which is greater than the White Leghorn and Rhode Island Redof 48.8 and 33.3, respectively. For layers, the mortality rates of White Leghorn (48.3) are greater than Fayoumi and Rhode Island Red (22.4, 27.3) and for layers, White Leghorn (35.3) are more than Rhode Island Red (16.3) and White Leghorn (21.5).

Table 2. Mortality rates of exotic chickens in Ethiopia.

	Breeds
Mortality rate	Fayoumi	Rhode Island Red	White leghorn	Author
Chickens	67.9	33.3	48.8	Getu et al. (2014)
Pullets	22.4	27.3	48.3
Layers	35.3	16.3	21.5
			8.1(60 days)	Tadesse (2015)

From Table 3, the hatchability rates (70%) of indigenous chickens in Ethiopia are comparable to exotic breeds, but egg weight (38), egg laying/hen/yr. (30–60) and age at first egg laying (180 days) are lower than those of exotic breeds.

Table 3. Productive performance of indigenous chicken in Ethiopia.

	Indigenous	Author/s
Egg weight/ g/	38,48	Bibi et al. (2021); Bekele and Shigute (2019b)
Hatchability rate	70,70	Bibi et al. (2021); Alemneh and Getabalew (2019)
Egg/hen/yr.	30–60	Bekele and Shigute (2019b)
Age at first egg-laying	180, 175.5	Bibi et al. (2021); Alemneh and Getabalew (2019)

Sexual maturity

Under the extensive farming system reported in Northern Ethiopia (Tadesse 2015b), the average age at first mating of cockerels was 26 weeks for indigenous breeds, 24.9 weeks for exotic breeds and 25.2 weeks for exotic breeds. The average age of exotic breeds the first egg was 25.7 weeks. It ranged from 24 to 27 weeks for cross breeds, 27.2 weeks for local breeds ranging from 24 to 28, and 25.4 weeks for exotic breeds ranging from 24 to 27 weeks (Litigebew et al. 2021). In Central Ethiopia, 27.4 weeks was reported as the average age of the first eggs for local breeds. The average age initially described by Getu et al. (2014) was 30.8, 31.9, and 32.7 weeks for Fayoumi, Rhode Island Red, and White Leghorn, respectively, in Northern Ethiopia. The age at which they first laid eggs for local chickens in the Amahara region, in western Ethiopia, was 26 weeks. The typical ages for initially mating female chicks and initially laying them are 23.7 and 28.5 weeks, respectively, in Beneshangul-Gumuz, western Ethiopia (Sisay 2017). The typical age of indigenous chickens initially mating was 20.8 weeks in the Metekel zone, Northwest Ethiopia. An initial age of 26.1 and 26.4 weeks for Fayoumi and Naked-neck crosses, and Rhode Island Red and indigenous white poultry crosses, respectively (Kamel 2016). The average age of the first egg was 27.2 weeks, for local breeds ranging from 24 to twenty-eight weeks, 25.7 for cross strains extended from 24 to 27 weeks, and 25.4 for exotic strains extended from 24 to 27 weeks (Litigebew et al. 2021). The age at sexual maturity of indigenous female chickens was attained at 27.2 weeks/6.8 months. Another report in Fogera district described that the typical age of indigenous chickens to reach sexual maturity is 23.48 and 23.6 weeks for males and females (Owoya and Ayuba 2019). The typical age of cockerels initially mating and pullets initially lying was 24.6 and 27.5 weeks, respectively, in the Burie district. Overall, 24 weeks was reported as the mean age of initial mating for male chicks in Beneshangul-Gumuz, western Ethiopia (Sisay 2017), while 21.8 weeks was reported as the average age of local male chickens initially mating in the Metekel zone, Northwest Ethiopia.

Body weight at hatching

The weight of local chickens at hatch in Northwest Ethiopia reported by Belay et al. (2018) was 27.2 g for Tilili, 27.9 g for Gelila, 27.1 g for D/Elias, and 27.9 g for Mecha under intensive management. Another author reported that the weight of Rhode Island Red hatch was 35.2 g, which was less than the 38 g reported by Alemneh and Getabalew (2019) for Rhode Island Red-crosses (Rhode Island Red and native kei) in southern Ethiopia. At hatching, the male and female day-old weights (g) were 28.8 and 26.2 for local kei, 29.7 and 27 for local kei and Fayoumi crosses, and 40.1 and 35.5 for local kei and Rhode Island Red, respectively. The hatching weight for Fayoumi and Naked-neck crosses and Rhode Island Red and native netch crosses is 28.8 and 39.2 g, respectively (Kamel 2016).

Major constraints of chicken production

Disease

Based on Chaimiso (2018) it is reported as a disease (mainly New Castle Disease, locally referred to as ‘Sombe/Fengil’) and predator cause death for village chickens in the valley of Oromia, Ethiopia. Field experiments among village poultry have been successful, and research has discovered interesting advances in NCD vaccine development. In many poor countries, however, NCD immunization is not currently included in local poultry extension programs. New castle diseases are wreaking havoc in our rural areas these days (Terfa et al. 2018).

New Castle Disease accounted for the leading vital quantity of general flock mortality at 57.3%. The second was fowl pox at 31.6%, coccidiosis 9.4% and predator loss 1.7%. The prevalence of the latest castle disease is 11% in Shashemane and Adami Tulu Jiddo Kombolcha. Newcastle disease is the major cause of death for local chicken ecotypes in North-West Amhara and the major disease in the South, West, and South parts of Ethiopia is Newcastle disease. Among the other infectious diseases, salmonellosis, coccidiosis, and fowl pox are considered the most important causes of mortality in local chickens, while predators are a further cause of loss. Some authors reported that mortality could reach up to 100% (Bekele 2016).

Predators

Predators like birds of prey (34%), dogs and cats (16.3%), and wild animals (15%) cause the death of household poultry in the basin of the Oromia region, Ethiopia. Predators (snakes, rats, dogs, cats, and foxes) caused losses, especially in young birds, within the southern neighborhood of Ethiopia (Bekele and Shigute 2019a). Similarly, Tadesse (Sonnino 2017) reported wild birds (eagles, hawks, etc.) and wild cats (locally referred to as ‘Shelemetmat’) as dangerous predators in the southern part of Ethiopia.

Indigenous breed replacement by exotic chickens

Farmers complained that efforts to improve the genetic potential of local birds by distributing cockerels, pullets, and fertile eggs from exotic birds had negative consequences, such as reducing hens’ brooding ability, reducing adaptation to low-input feeding systems, and jeopardizing the village chicken population's genetic base. Because exotic poultry breeds are assumed to be insipid by the local genetic stock, the indigenous poultry genomic resources in Northwest Ethiopia are in grave danger due to the high rate of genetic erosion caused by the widespread and random dispersal of exotic poultry breeds by both governmental and non-governmental organizations. Different reports show that (Tadesse 2015b) animal genetic resources in developing countries are largely being eroded through the quick alteration of the agricultural system, during which the most common cause of the loss of indigenous animal genetic resources is the indiscriminate importing of exotic genetic resources.

Feed

Availability, quality, and price of feed ingredients are the main constraints on poultry production, no matter the system of production and geographical location. The main constraints on chicken production are poor nutrition and health problems. Poultry production is similarly inhibited by reduced contact with goods, markets, and services, poor institution commitment, and absence of skills knowledge (Ahiwe et al. 2018) (Table 4).

Table 4. Major constraints of chicken productive and reproductive performance in Ethiopia.

Constraints	Frequency	Percent
Disease	2	1
Predator & disease	47	26
Predator, disease & financial problems	19	11
Predator, disease & land scarcity	60	33
Predator, disease, lack of labor & financial problems	14	8
Feed shortage & predator	38	21

Source: Matawork (2018) and Alemneh and Getabalew (2019).

Conclusions

The reproductive performances of local chickens, exotic chickens, and their crosses in households were expressed as slow rate of growth, late maturity, production, small clutch size, small-sized eggs, high mortality of chicks, and broodiness. The productive and reproductive performances of local chickens are not evaluated in an intensive system with improved management conditions. The chicken suppliers are not providing either technical or other support to those receiving exotic chickens the way to maintain their generation sustainably in their households. Therefore, there has been a requirement to conserve and preserve indigenous chickens in order that they can be utilized in future breed improvement strategies. Management interventions, including control of diseases, particularly NCD, and improved feeding and housing, need to be strengthened. Although researchers are conducting research activities to enhance the performance of indigenous chickens either by importing exotic chickens or crossing them with pure commercial breeds, there is a provision of input.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Data availability statement

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analyzed in this study.