Why ‘spiritism’?

Translations of summary

Some of the early representatives of psychoanalysis had a lifelong interest in certain ‘occult’ phenomena. Although several theories were born for the purpose of understanding the interest of Sigmund Freud, Carl Gustav Jung or Sándor Ferenczi in spiritualism and related phenomena, interpreters usually ignore the changing cultural meaning and significance of modern occult practices like spiritualism. The aim of the present essay is to outline the cultural and historical aspects of spiritualism and spiritism in Hungary, and thus to shed new light on the involvement of Ferenczi – and other Hungarian psychoanalysts like Géza Róheim, István Hollós, and Mihály Bálint – in spiritualism and spiritism. The connections between spiritualism and the Budapest School of Psychoanalysis will be discussed, highlighting the cultural and scientific significance of Hungarian spiritualism and spiritism in the evolution of psychoanalysis. Taking into account the relative lack of the scientific research in the field of spiritism in Hungary, it can be pointed out that Ferenczi undertook a pioneering role in Hungarian psychical research.

Pourquoi le spiritisme ?

Quelques uns des premiers psychanalystes s’étaient intéressés de longue date aux phénomènes « occultes ». On assista par la suite à la naissance de différentes théories visant à comprendre l'intérêt que Sigmund Freud, Carl Gustav Jung ou encore Sándor Ferenczi portaient au spiritualisme et autres phénomènes similaires. Cependant, leurs adeptes ne tinrent pas compte pour la plupart de l’évolution du sens culturel et de la signification des pratiques occultes modernes comme le spiritualisme. Dans cet article, l'auteure dresse un tableau des aspects culturels et historiques du spiritualisme et du spiritisme en Hongrie et éclaire d'un jour nouveau l'implication de Ferenczi – et d'autres psychanalystes hongrois, comme Géza Róheim, István Hollós et Mihály Bálint ‐ dans le spiritualisme et le spiritisme. Discutant des liens entre le spiritualisme et l’École psychanalytique de Budapest, elle met l'accent sur la rôle culturel et scientifique du spiritualisme et du spiritisme hongrois dans l’évolution de la psychanalyse. Alors qu'on observe une absence relative de la recherche scientifique dans le domaine du spiritualisme en Hongrie, le rôle de pionnier joué par Ferenczi dans l'investigation hongroise du psychisme mérite d’être souligné.

Warum “spiritismus”?

Einige der frühen Vertreter der Psychoanalyse pflegten ein lebenslanges Interesse an bestimmten „okkulten“ Phänomenen. Zwar wurden verschiedene Theorien entwickelt, um das Interesse Sigmund Freuds, Carl Gustav Jungs oder Sándor Ferenczis am Spiritualismus und ähnlichen Phänomenen zu erklären, doch im Allgemeinen übersehen die Interpreten die sich wandelnde kulturelle Bedeutung und Signifikanz moderner okkulter Praktiken, zum Beispiel des Spiritualismus. Der vorliegende Essay versucht, die kulturellen und historischen Aspekte des Spiritualismus und Spiritismus in Ungarn darzulegen und auf diese Weise neues Licht auf die spiritualistischen und spiritistischen Neigungen Ferenczis – und anderer ungarischer Psychoanalytiker, etwa Géza Róheim, István Hollós und Michael Balint – zu werfen. Die Zusammenhänge zwischen dem ungarischen Spiritualismus und der Budapester Schule der Psychoanalyse werden diskutiert; besonders betont wird dabei der kulturelle und wissenschaftliche Stellenwert des ungarischen Spiritualismus und Spiritismus für die Entwicklung der Psychoanalyse. Unter Berücksichtigung des relativen Fehlens einer wissenschaftlichen Erforschung des Spiritualismus in Ungarn lässt sich zeigen, dass Ferenczi für die ungarische psychologische Forschung eine Pionierrolle spielte

Perché lo ‘spiritismo’?

Alcuni dei padri fondatori della psicoanalisi nutrirono un duraturo interesse per certi fenomeni “occulti”. Nonostante si siano proposte diverse teorie per comprendere l'interesse di Sigmund Freud, Carl Gustav Jung o Sandor Ferenczi per lo spiritualismo e per i fenomeni ad esso correlati, gli interpreti di questi fenomeni solitamente ignorano il mutato valore e significato culturale delle pratiche occulte moderne, come lo spiritualismo. Con il presente saggio, mi propongo di delineare gli aspetti storici e culturali dello spiritualismo e dello spiritismo in Ungheria, al fine di poter gettare una nuova luce sul coinvolgimento di Ferenczi – e di altri psicoanalisti ungheresi quali Géza Roheim, Istvan Hollos e Mihaly Balint‐ in materia di spiritualismo e spiritismo. Si prenderà in esame il legame tra lo spiritualismo ungherese e la Scuola Psicoanalitica di Budapest, sottolineando il valore scientifico e culturale dello spiritualismo e dello spiritismo ungheresi nello sviluppo della psicoanalisi. Se si tiene conto della relativa paucità delle ricerche nel campo dello spiritualismo in Ungheria, risulta evidente quanto Ferenczi sia stato un vero pioniere nell'intraprendere la ricerca psichica in questo paese.

¿por qué el “espiritismo”?

Algunos de los primeros pensadores del psicoanálisis estuvieron interesados en ciertos fenómenos del “ocultismo” durante toda su vida. Aunque han surgido varias teorías para explicar el interés de Sigmund Freud, Carl Gustav Jung o Sándor Ferenczi en el espiritualismo y otros fenómenos relacionados con él, estas tienden a ignorar el sentido cultural y la importancia cambiantes de prácticas ocultas modernas como el espiritualismo. El objetivo de este ensayo es describir los aspectos culturales e históricos del espiritualismo y del espiritismo en Hungría y, así, arrojar nueva luz sobre el involucramiento de Ferenczi – y de otros psicoanalistas húngaros como Géza Róheim, István Hollós y Mihály Bálint – en estas prácticas. Se analizarán las conexiones entre el espiritualismo húngaro y la Escuela de Psicoanálisis de Budapest, destacando la importancia cultural y científica del espiritualismo y el espiritismo en la evolución del psicoanálisis en ese país. Teniendo en cuenta la relativa falta de investigación científica en el campo del espiritualismo en Hungría, puede señalarse que Ferenczi se convirtió en un pionero en ese campo.

Key words:

• spiritism
• spiritualism
• Sándor Ferenczi
• psychical research
• Hungary

Acknowledgements

The author gratefully acknowledges the suggestions and comments of Eberhard Bauer and Peter L. Rudnytsky.

Notes

1. Under the term ‘occult’ used by Freud and other psychoanalysts very different branches of modern occult practices were gathered like spiritism, spiritualism, astrology, theosophy, divination, etc. The term ‘occult’ usually refers to hidden knowledge or a practice like magic, alchemy, divination, numerology, Hermeticism, Kabbalah etc. However, the precise definition of the concept remains problematic, since a wide variety of occult schools emerged in the Western occult tradition. The 19th and 20th century revival of the occult was often identified as ‘modern occultism’, that had originated in medieval mysticism, Neoplatonism, astrology, the influence of eastern esotericism, mesmerism and early spiritualism (Galbreath, 1971; Treitel, 2004).

2. In the present paper the term ‘spiritism’ refers to spiritualistic, mediumistic phenomena. The exact differentiation of spiritualism from spiritism is similarly complicated as the definition of occultism. Although both spiritism and spiritualism were based on the supposition that it was possible to communicate with the deceased, depending on space and time the precise meaning of spiritism and spiritualism varied. In Hungary it was spiritism that was primarily present, although in everyday usage spiritism both referred to spiritism and spiritualism. Since the present paper focuses on the Hungarian context of spiritism the author will use the definitions of Adelma Vay, the co‐founder of Hungarian spiritism to illuminate the main differences between spiritism and spiritualism in a Hungarian context. According to Adelma Vay, spiritism was based on the system of Allan Kardec, who, in his work The Spirits’ Book, named the theory of immortality and the philosophy of spirit communication spiritism. Following his ideas spiritists in Hungary were dealing with the investigation of the spirit world. As Adelma Vay illucidates, spirit communication had two different branches: spiritism, which held sway in France, Spain, Italy, Austria, Germany, South‐America and Hungary, and spiritualism that was followed mainly in England and North‐America. The latter focused on the experimental results in the field of spiritualistic phenomena, whilst the former identified itself as a philosophy emphasizing immortality, reincarnation, the divine mission of Jesus, and the unity between living people and the spirit world (Vay, 1887). Interestingly, the present day Spiritualists Churches – like the National Spiritualist Association of Churches – are usually closer to ‘spiritism’ than ‘spiritualism’ as described by Adelma Vay.

3. Letter from Sigmund Freud to Sándor Ferenczi, 20 March 1925 (Brabant et al., 2000, p. 209).

4. Letter from Sigmund Freud to Sándor Ferenczi, 3 December 1910 (Brabant et al., 1993, pp. 239–40).

5. Letter from Sigmund Freud to Ernest Jones, 7 March 1926 (Paskuaskas, 1993).

6. The correct name of the magnetizer is Gárdos.

7. Letter from Sándor Ferenczi to Sigmund Freud, 20 November 1909 (Brabant et al., 1993, p. 100).

8. The deed of foundation of the Budapest Association of Spiritual Investigators, National Archives of Hungary, ID number: 18441 (K‐150, 7/8, 55462, 1357, n.a.).

9. Letter from Sándor Ferenczi to Sigmund Freud, 22 November 1910 (Brabant et al., 1993, pp. 235–6).

10. Letter from Sigmund Freud to Sándor Ferenczi, 20 August 1910 (Brabant et al., 1993, p. 211).

11. It must be added that according to rumours, the Rókus Hospital was a haunted place where several unusual manifestations occurred. A report was published in Heavenly Light, in which a witness gave an account of how spirits in the kitchen put the tableware into order every night. According to some employees, the spirit of a deceased nun who had been responsible for cleaning the kitchen in her life was walking around in the building (Heavenly Light, 1921).

12. In Hungary the term ‘spiritism’ was prevalent, referring usually to both spiritism and spiritualism.

13. He translated Sante de Sanctis's essay entitled ‘The miraculous element in dreaming’, in which the author discussed the current standpoints of psychical researchers. In one of his footnotes Ferenczi expressed his agreement concerning the importance of scientific research in the realm of the supernatural (De Sanctis, 1902, p. 358), and he seemed to be very rigorous in this question (De Sanctis, 1902, p. 365).

14. Ferenczi was an associate member of the SPR from 1911.

15. Van‐e csoda, van‐e földöntúli lélek [Do miracles exist, does the ethereal soul exist]? Az Est, 27–30 November 1934.

16. Spiritualists had a very controversial relation to religion in general. Although several spiritists aimed at rediscovering the Christian doctrines or even rehabilitating some ancient Christian practices, they confronted Christianity for several reasons. Spiritualists usually denied the doctrine of the fall, hell, judgment day, the existence of the devil and the resurrection of the physical body. On the other hand, they often claimed – especially in Hungary – that Jesus, the Virgin Mary or other biblical figures had been present during the séances for the purpose of offering a new interpretation of Christian doctrines. The representatives of the Catholic Church were usually opposed to spiritualist and spiritist practices, which they declared to have a demonic, satanic origin (see Greenwell, 1879; Jones, 1871). Taking into account that Tuszkay was arguing against spiritism, it is remarkable that the above‐mentioned representatives of Hungarian Churches were against him.

17. Hollós's paper on the subject made a remarkable stir in Hungarian psychoanalytic circles. After attending a lecture of Hollós on telepathic occurrences, Imre Hermann also started to collect ‘coincidences’ (Hermann, 1963).