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Notes
1. Population tables for 1900, 1910, 1912, 1915, and 1920, Statistics Centre of Finland [from here: SCF]; Statute 29 Oct 1918, National Archives of Finland, Helsinki [from here: NARC]. The Statute of 29 October 1918 officially delineated the border between Vyborg and the Russian border. Before the 1917 Revolutions, this borderland was an attractive and unpolluted summer dacha area for Russians and other foreigners, mainly hailing from Saint Petersburg; see Vilho Hämäläinen, Karjalan Kannaksen venäläinen kesäasutus ja sen vaikutus Suomen ja Venäjän suhteiden kehitykseen autonomian ajan lopulla, Acta Universitas Tamperensiensis, Tampere: Taylor & Francis 1974, 6–40; Jyrki Loima, Muukalaisina Suomessa. Kaaakkoisen Kannaksen venäläisseurakunnat kansallisena ongelmana 1889–1939, Helsinki: Taylor & Francis 2001, 30–117, 260–290. In the Treaties of 1940 and 1944, this borderland and Vyborg were attached to the Soviet Union.
2. See e.g., Samuel, P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order, New York: Taylor & Francis 1996, 19–72, 81–90, 125–54.
3. Letter by the Administrative Board to the Civil Authorities of the Vyborg District, 28 May 1890, Archives of the Senate Economics Department [from here: STA], NARC; Statute 12 June 1890 (concerning Russian language and civil servants in the Vyborg District), NARC.
4. Decision of the Tsar on the Raivola Village Administration 1889, STA 1889, NARC; Klirovnaia Vedomost 1899, Archives of the Raivola Orthodox Parish, Ba 2, Archives of Mikkeli (AM). See also Hämäläinen, Karjalan Kannaksen, 6–26; Loima, Muukalaisina Suomessa, 30–56.
5. Tsarist Ukaz for the establishment of an Russian Orthodox Eparchy in the Grand Duchy of 24 October 1892 and Statute 4 December 1895.
6. Declaration of His Merciful Majesty, Tsar Nikolai II, 3 February 1899; see also Päiviö Tommila, Suuri addressi, Porvoo: Taylor & Francis 1999, 36–38.
7. Tsarist Ukaz for the Russian Orthodox Eparchy in the Grand Duchy of 24 October 1892 and Statute, 4 December 1895.
8. For the Finnish education and early national visions, including those of Snellman on 1850s–1880s, see for example Saima (a newspaper of which Snellman was the editor‐in‐chief until his employment was terminated for political reasons) 4 January 1844; Saima 4 April 1844; Hämäläinen [newspaper] 4 September 1863; Hämäläinen 24 February 1865. See also Pentti Karkama, “The Individual and National Identity in J. V. Snellman's Young‐Hegelian Theory,” in M. Branch, ed., National History and Identity: Approaches to the Writing of National History in the North‐east Region Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, Studia Fennica Ethnologia, Tampere: Taylor & Francis 1999, 141–152: Snellman's main philosophical publication was J.W. Snellmann, Versuch einer spekulativen Entwiklung der Idee der Persönlichkeit, Tübingen, L.F. Fues, 1841. For more on J.W. Snellman, see http://www.kansallisbiografia.fi/english, accessed 2 December 2012.
9. Finlands Författningssamling 1865, NARC; Annual Statistics of Population, 1855, 1860, 1870, SCF.
10. Arola, Pauli Tavoitteena kunnon kansalainen, Taylor & Francis: University of Helsinki 2003, 1–5; Aimo Halila, Suomen kansakoululaitoksen historia I. Turku: Taylor & Francis 1949. See also Osmo Jussila, Maakunnasta valtioksi, Porvoo: Taylor & Francis 1987, 103–107, 165–7; Karkama, The individual and national identity, 141–152.
11. Suomen Suuriruhtinaan Asetus‐Kokous 1864, no. 4; Helsingin Uutiset [newspaper], 2 January 1863.
12. Jyrki Loima, Myytit, uskomukset ja kansa. Johdanto moderniin nationalismiin Suomessa. Helsinki: Taylor & Francis 2007, 102–107, 112, 117–19.
13. Hämäläinen, Karjalan Kannaksen, 30–105; Loima, Muukalaisina Suomessa, 36–120.
14. Tsarist Ukaz for the Russian Orthodox Eparchy in the Grand Duchy 24 Oct 1892 and Statute of 4 December 1895; Statute of 12 June 1890; The Decision of the Tsar on the Raivola Village Administration, kd119/12. 1889, STA; Russian villa‐owners to the Governor‐General, Governor‐General's Archives [from here: KKK] 1916, II sect. Fb 1241.76:2, NARC. For more, see Loima, Muukalaisina Suomessa, 36–63, 110–30.
15. See Table . Hämäläinen, Karjalan Kannaksen, 104–105; Loima, Muukalaisina Suomessa, 36, 63, 108.
16. Statute of 1898; Arola, Tavoitteena kunnon, 8.
17. Russian villa‐owners to the Governor‐General, KKK 1916, II sect. Fb 1241.76:2, NARC; Loima, Muukalaisina Suomessa, 45–85.
18. A staunch conservative (or, perhaps, a reactionary) Pobedonostsev was thereby the lay chief of the Russian Orthodox Church and played a key role in determining Russian educational policy (editor's note).
19. D.V. Pospelovskii, Russkaia pravoslavnaia Cerkov v XX veke, Moskva: Taylor & Francis 1995, 19–23, 505 (in English published as Dmitrii Pospielovsky, The Russian Church under the Soviet Regime 1917–1982, 2 vols, Crestwood, NY: Taylor & Francis, 1984); Jyrki Loima, “Nationalism and the Orthodox Church in Finland 1895–1958,” in J. Loima, ed., Nationalism and Orthodoxy: Two Thematic Studies on National Ideologies and their Interaction with the Church, Helsinki: Taylor & Francis, 2004, 114–120. In addition, some primary schools were founded by the zemstva, the local bodies of government that were created in the 1860s. Zemstva, however, were not introduced in all parts of the Russian empire.
20. Pospelovskii, Russkaia pravoslavnaia Cerkov, 19–23, 504–5; Russian villa‐owners to the Governor‐General, KKK 1916, II sect. Fb 1241.76:2, NARC; Loima, Nationalism and the Orthodox Church, 109–114. For Russian nationalism, see for example N.M. Karamzin, Istoriia Gosudarstva Rossiiskago, 12 vols, Sankt Peterburg: Taylor & Francis, 1819–26, 36–54; N. Danilevskii, Rossiia i Evropa, Sankt Peterburg: Taylor & Francis, 1995 [reprint from 1895; original, 1869] 22–23, 310–462 [in English, see N.I. Danilevskii, Russia And Europe: The Slavic Worlds Political and Cultural Relations with The Germanic‐Roman West, Bloomington, IN: Taylor & Francis, 2013. See as well Geoffrey Hosking, Russia, People and Empire 1552–1917, London: Taylor & Francis, 1997, xxxiii, 234–45, 271–7; Keijo Korhonen, Autonomous Finland in the Political Thought of Nineteenth Century of Russia, Annales Universitas Turkuensis, Ser B. Tom 105: Turku University, 1967, 52–87.
21. Memorandum of the Commission for Joining the District of Vyborg to Russia 21 Apr 1914, KKK 1914, Fb 978. 104; Prime Minister P.A. Stolypin's letter to Governor‐General Seyn, Office of the Governor‐General to the Council of Ministers, KKK 1910, Sect. I, 535, CL, NARC.
22. On Finnish resistance, see for example Mikko Uotinen, Uhatut pitäjät Kivennapa ja Uusikirkko … , Vyborg: n.p. 1911; Memorandum on Pan‐Finnish propaganda, Russian Education Board of the Grand Duchy to Mr. Borovitinov 4 Nov 1913, KKK 1912, II sect. Fb 727.55‐31, NARC.
23. On the violence, see the General‐Governor of the Vyborg District to the General‐Governor Seyn 27 Jan 1913, KKK 1913, III sect. Fb 864.89‐1; Protocol of 23 May 1916 (by dacha owners) to the General‐Governor and the report from Police Investigations, 28 May 1916, KKK 1916, Fb 1241.76:2, NARC.
24. Memorandum of the Commission for Joining the District of Vyborg to Russia 21 Apr 1914, KKK 1914, Fb 978. 104, NARC. On eastern “aliens” and “sub‐humans,” see Outi Karemaa, Vihollisia, vainoojia syöpäläisiä. Venäläisviha Suomessa 1917–1923. Helsinki: Taylor & Francis 1998, 10–17, 22; for more, see also Loima, Muukalaisina Suomessa, 102–113.
25. Eevert Laine, Raivolan venäläisen kylähallinnon syntyminen, Historical Archives XLIV, Helsinki, 1939.
26. An application for funds from the Terijoki Russian upper secondary school, 9 January 1915, and letters from the Governor‐General concerning the budget of the Terijoki Russian upper secondary school of 18 September 1914, 17 November 1914, and 18 May 1915, KKK 1915, Fb 1151.58‐3, NARC.
27. Letters from the Governor‐General concerning the budget of the Terijoki Russian upper secondary school 18 September 1914, 17 November 1914 and 18 May 1915, KKK 1915, Fb 1151.58‐3, NARC; Klirovnaia Vedomost 1900–1915, Archives of Terijoki Orthodox Parish, II Bd I, AM; Metriceskie Knigi 1900–1910, Archives of Raivola Orthodox Parish, AM.
28. Finlandskaia Gazeta, 22 October 1912, 31 October 1912; Governor‐General to the Ministry of Interior Affairs of Finland, KKK 1912, Fb 716.9–12, NARC; Klirovnaia Vedomost 1900–1915, Archives of Terijoki Orthodox Parish, II Bd I, AM; Metriceskie Knigi 1900–1910, Archives of Raivola Orthodox Parish; Records of Married Persons, Archives of the Lutheran Parish of Kivennapa 1900–1910, Eb 3–4; Metriceskie Knigi 1898–1910, Archives of Terijoki Orthodox Parish, Metriceskie Knigi 1914–1916, Archives of Kuokkala Orthodox Parish, AM.
29. Population Tables of 1900, 1910, 1912, 1915, and 1920, SCF; Hämäläinen, Karjalan Kannaksen, 104–105; Loima, Muukalaisina Suomessa, 36, 63, 108; Pyykönen, Liisa, Terijoki venäläisenä huvila‐asutusalueena, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Jyväskylä, 1969, 40–53.
30. Decree 18 Feb 1904; Karamzin, Istoria, 35–59; Mr Messarosh in Tserkovnaia Vedomosti [Journal] 32, 1900, 2; Pravoslavnaia Karelia: Ocherk, Sankt Peterburg: n.p., 1914, 57–66; Pravoslavnaia Tserkov v Finliandii. Napechatano po rasporiazheniiu G. Ober‐Prokurora Sv. Synoda, Sankt Peterburg: Synodalnaia Tipografia 1893, 2–4, 7–9, 47–63, 122–128; Archbishop Antonii's (served as such from 1892 to 1898) letter of 24 August 1895 to V.P. Sokolov and Antonii's application to the Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church, F. 803, OP. 1, d. 341, 1895–1896, Tsentralnyi Gosudarstvennyi Arkhiv (TsGA), Sankt Peterburg. For later Russian research, see O.A. Iarovoi and I.A. Smirnova, Valamskii Monastir i Pravoslavnaia Tserkov v Finliandii 1880–1930‐e gg., Petrozavodsk, 1997, 43–53.
31. For research, see Hämynen, Suomalaistajat, venäläistäjät, rajakarjalaiset. Kirkko‐ ja koulukysymys Raja‐Karjalassa 1900–1923, Joensuu: Taylor & Francis 1995, 10, 21–23: Loima, Nationalism and Orthodoxy, 118–123, 137–40, 151.
32. Notice such approaches to “invented history” elsewhere in Eric Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality, Cambridge, MA: Taylor & Francis 1992, 11–23.
33. Archbishop Antonii's letter of 24 August 1895 to V.P. Sokolov and Antonii's application to the Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church, F. 803, OP. 1, d. 341, 1895–1896, TsGA. The best Finnish description of the Karelian “battle” regarding the influence on parish schools of nationalist aims (based on personal experience and later destroyed archival sources) is Kaarlo Merikoski, Taistelua Karjalasta, Helsinki: Taylor & Francis, 1939.
34. Tserkovnii Vestnik 35, 1900, 1–2; Archbishop Antonii's welcome speech to Bobrikov in Aamun Koitto [magazine], 11, 1898; see Tuomo Polvinen, Valtakunta ja rajamaa: N.I. Bobrikov Suomen kenraalikuvernöörinä 1898–1904, Juva: Taylor & Francis, 1984, 36–37, 73–93.
35. Tserkovnii Vestnik 35, 1900, 1–2; Archbishop Antonii's welcome speech to Bobrikov in Aamun Koitto 11, 1898. For more, see Loima, Nationalism and Orthodoxy, 125, 127–8; and see Polvinen, Valtakunta ja rajamaa, 73–93, 133–4.
36. Bishop Kiprian and Brotherhood of St. George to the Tsar, KKK 1912, Fb 725.31, NARC; Inspector Svetlovskii's report on Russian schools and pupils 24 December 1916 (6551), 30 December 1916, Ea‐Ed, Archives of Kellomäki Russian parish, AM; Inspector A. Sadovnikov to Senator E.N. Setälä 2 April 1917 and 17 June 1918, Setälä's Collection, NARC.
37. On the Karelian Brotherhood and its leader, Bishop Kiprian, see Archbishop Sergii's Report on the Karelian Brotherhood (1909–1910), F.796, Op.193, sect.VI, Protocol III, 1911, TsGIA; File “Episkopa Kipriana,” KKK 1914, III sect. Fb 993.17‐3, NARC, Klirovnaia vedomost of Terijoki Russian Orthodox Parish 1916, Archives of Terijoki Orthodox Parish, Archives in Mikkeli; also Hämynen, Suomalaiset, venäläiset, rajakarjalaiset, 70–71; Loima, Jyrki, Esipaimen siunaa. Suomen ortodoksiset piispat 1892–1988. Jyväskylä: Taylor & Francis, 1999, 117–133.
38. Bishop Kiprian and Brotherhood of St. George to the Tsar, KKK 1912, Fb 725.31, NARC; Inspector Svetlovskii's report on Russian schools and pupils 24 December 1916 (6551), 30 December 1916, Ea‐Ed, Archives of Kellomäki Russian parish, AM. The Annual State Calendars of Finland 1908–1917; Inspector A. Sadovnikov to Senator E.N. Setälä 2 April/Apr 1917 and 17 Jun 1918, Setälä's Collection, NARC; Memorandum of Hj. Basilier, inspector K. Merikoski and A. Sadovnikov, Archives of the Committee for Karelian Schools, NARC. See also Hämynen, Suomalaiset, venäläiset, rajakarjalaiset, 64–93.
39. Memorandum of Hj. Basilier, inspector K. Merikoski and A. Sadovnikov, Archives of the Committee for Karelian Schools; Bishop Seraphim's telegrams (March 1917) to the General Governor and Senate of Finland, the Senate of Finland to the General Governor, 11 October 1917, KKK 1917, Sect. I Fb 1293.48:4, NARC; Pravoslavnaia Karelia, 127–143.
40. On Karhapää, see Mika Nokelainen, “Ryssänkirkosta kansankirkoksi,” Unpublished Thesis for Licenciate Diploma, Helsinki University, 2003.
41. Memorandum of Hj. Basilier, inspector K. Merikoski and A. Sadovnikov, Archives of the Committee for Karelian Schools; Pravoslavnaia Karelia, 127–143; Pertti Luntinen, “Karjalaiset suomalaisuuden ja venäläisyyden rajalla,” in Pauli Kurkinen, ed., Venäläiset Suomessa 1809–1917, Huhmari: Taylor & Francis, 1985, 136–146; also Loima, Nationalism and Orthodoxy, 142–144.
42. Statute 29 Oct 1918; Jyrki Loima, “Genocide or Ethnic Cleansing: The Fate of Russian ‘Aliens and Enemies’ in the Finnish Civil War in 1918,” The Historian 2, 2007, 254–274.
43. Loima, “Genocide or Ethnic Cleansing,” 254–274.
44. Database War Victims in Finland 1914–22, available at: http://vesta.narc.fi/cgi‐bin/db2www/sotasurmaetusivu/main?lang=en, accessed 31 May 2014.
45. Loima, “Genocide or Ethnic Cleansing,” 254–274; Memorandum of Hj. Basilier, inspector K. Merikoski and A. Sadovnikov, Archives of the Committee for Karelian Schools, NARC.
46. Saara Tuomaala, “Isien jälijillä itsenäisessä Suomessa. Maamme‐kirjan maskuliininen narratiivi ja pohjalaispoikien kokemukset,” Historiallinen Aikakauskirja [Historical Journal] 3, 2003, 302–309.
47. Law 1921 concerning common education in Finland.
48. Arola, Tavoitteena kunnon, 2–12; Letter from the Finnish Medical Authorities [to close the border] to the Borderland Commandant 28 June 1918, Archives of the Borderland Commandant, Military Archives of Finland, NARC; Loima, Nationalism and Orthodoxy, 106–112.
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Jyrki Loima
Dr. Jyrki Loima is Adjunct Professor in Universities of Helsinki, and of Eastern Finland, specializing in intellectual history and the history of minorities and of education.