Children’s Participation in Planning and Regeneration

Abstract

This research has been undertaken in acknowledgement of an opportunity to incorporate planning and regeneration into the learning regime of children. Indeed one of the goals of the former Royal Town Planning Institute President, Ann Skippers, was to develop, during 2010, a project based initiative to take into primary and secondary schools, potentially with links to planning schools.

Children are claimed to be the longest term stakeholders in society (Badham, 2002). However, in today’s culture of transparent and participatory planning (Lloyd, 2008) where citizens are encouraged to participate in planning, Matthews (2002) contended that in practice children remain outside participatory processes and form a section of society with little or no influence over decision making. Indeed, it may be argued that society may make benign decisions based on ignorance of children’s wishes or needs, and at worst they may be simply ignored.

Consequently, this article documents the findings of research undertaken in relation to the participation of primary school children in planning processes. It sets out the context, methodology and details and analyses key findings, making some tentative recommendations as to how planning and regeneration might become more visible within the primary school classroom.

Keywords:

• Children
• Citizenship
• Live Project
• Participation
• Planning

Introduction

This research was undertaken to embrace an opportunity to incorporate planning and regeneration into the learning regime of children. Essentially, the former Royal Town Planning Institute (RTPI) President, Ann Skippers, developed a project based initiative to take an understanding of planning into primary and secondary schools during 2010, and to strengthen potential links to planning schools. (The RTPI is the UK’s leading planning body which exists to advance the science and art of planning in the public interest). Skippers believes that:

By working with schools, we might capture that fascination that I’m sure young children have, to increase awareness about planning and to ensure that planning as a discipline is visible, rather than invisible, in schools. This is one of the ways that we can nurture the planners and researchers of the future.

(Skippers, 2010)

The research builds upon current knowledge summarised in the literature review, and involves some evaluation of a live project, in which built environment professionals and teachers work together to bring built environment concepts into the primary school classroom. The research techniques used included classroom observation, semi-structured interviews and case studies to further extend existing knowledge.

Context

It has been asserted that children are the longest term stakeholders in society (Badham, 2002). Moreover, in today’s culture of transparent and participatory planning (Lloyd, 2008) citizens are encouraged to participate in planning. Yet Matthews (2002) contended that in practice children remain outside participatory processes and form a section of society with little or no influence over decision making. Indeed, it may be argued that society may make benign decisions based on ignorance of children’s wishes or needs, and at worst they may be simply ignored.

Research undertaken by Woolley et al. (1999) indicated that most environmental planning effectively reflects only adult principles and forms of activity, endorsing Matthews’ (2002) call to further investigate the local environment as seen by children. More importantly, perhaps, Woolley et al. (1999) and Matthews (2002, p.457) collectively argued that ‘only in this way will they [children] become full and integrated users of large scale places’. These observations have practical implications for decision making within planning and regeneration where intra-generational and inter-generational active and inclusive use of place is increasingly acknowledged as being important. The challenge would appear to be one of finding appropriate ways to engage children in decision making.

One of the major areas of interest within the RTPI is the educational continuum. Skippers (2010) firmly believes that an interest in planning can be nurtured from an early age. Consequently the RTPI considers academic communities to be an important link between those first steps to practice and becoming a professional, and promotes the importance of its members helping to nurture the next generation of professionals, providing the support and network that only a university can garner. Skippers (2010) advises that ‘The RTPI needs [members] to push the boundaries with new ideas to challenge practice, but also needs evidence to do the job properly’.

In recognition of an opportunity to promote planning in schools, the RTPI has produced a number of resources for schools, suitable for Key Stages 1 to 4 (encompassing children aged 4–19) and beyond (RTPI, 2010). RTPI Cymru has developed materials to promote an awareness of planning to young people, including a leaflet and classroom exercise for primary school children, whilst North West Planning Aid provides an education pack containing worksheets suitable for Key Stage 2. The Manual for Schools (RTPI, 2004) provides guidance for teachers of 11–19 year olds, however no such comprehensive guidance has been produced for teachers of primary school children.

From a theoretical perspective, Hart (1997, p.41) introduced the ‘Ladder of Children’s Participation’ in which he defined different levels of children’s participation, ranging from manipulation (at the lowest level) through to child initiated and shared decisions with adults (the top rung). In educational terms, Hart (1997) further adds to the broader debate relating to deliberative and participative democracies by suggesting that children can learn to appreciate democracy and a sense of their own capability and responsibility to participate in democratic society. Importantly, he further suggests that the planning, design, monitoring and management of the physical environment provides an ideal realm for the active practice of children’s participation as environmental issues may be easier for children to understand than some social problems. This opens up the potential for better understanding of how children might be encouraged to develop an appreciation of the built environment, and, more particularly, its planning, development and management.

Aim of the paper

The aim of the paper was to explore opportunities for embedding planning and regeneration into the primary school curriculum in Northern Ireland in order to ensure that children have the knowledge and skills to be able to participate in planning and regeneration processes. Four objectives were identified:

Objective 1: to identify, review and critically discuss the available theories and practices of youth and children’s participation in planning processes and regeneration strategies in order to conceptualise the research.

Objective 2: to explain the primary school curriculum in Northern Ireland in order to contextualise the research by explaining both the content and pedagogy of primary school education.

Objective 3: to identify and evaluate emerging practices which seek to ensure active engagement of primary school children in planning and regeneration matters.

Objective 4: to consider possible recommendations for embedding these strategies in the Northern Ireland primary school curriculum to ensure pedagogy of active citizenship.

Methodology

Given the nature of the research objectives and the scope of the study, it was considered that qualitative research methods were most appropriate, and use was made of the grounded theory qualitative approach. Grounded theory begins with experience, progressing to produce a general and more widely applicable theory (Della Porta and Keating, 2008). In this respect, semi-structured interviews and classroom observations sought to draw upon the knowledge and experience of both teaching staff and built environment professionals, in an attempt to develop a theory to establish whether children can be supported and encouraged to participate in the planning system.

Brown et al. (1993) discuss classroom observation methods, maintaining that there are four stages in the teaching process which can be identified during each session: prior planning, introduction, delivery and conclusion. Brown et al. (1993) identify a number of observation methods such as keeping a chronological record of events throughout the session to provide post-observation discussion points; prior to the session the observer and observed may agree to focus on certain aspects (such as the interrelationship of the teaching content with planning and regeneration); it is also suggested that the session could be video recorded for analysis.

Tilstone (1998) holds the view that the use of observation in schools poses ethical issues which particularly in action research projects, stem from the research problem, the setting in which the research takes place, the methods of data collection or the participants. In the case of this research, it was not considered to be ethical or appropriate to video or photograph primary school children in the classroom; similarly a chronological record of events would have provided unfocussed discussion points. The selected method of classroom observation was therefore to focus on particular aspects in an attempt to make a connection to planning and regeneration.

Tilstone (1998) advocates that ‘observation’, when interpreted as merely ‘watching’, in the absence of interpretation and analysis, is of little or no value and believes observation to be an important tool for the assessment of knowledge, understanding and skills in all areas of the curriculum. In addition she (Tilstone, 1998) considers observation to be an effective method of assessing approaches to decision-making and monitoring a discrepancy between learning opportunities and the experiences offered.

Indeed the scientific technique of Flanders’ Interactive Analysis tool uses trained observers to study and record the interaction between the teacher and the students (Freiberg, 1981). It is grounded in the theory that the success of a teacher may be judged through the degree of effectiveness of their teaching which may be objectively assessed through their interaction with the children. Thus a systematic or objective analysis of the teacher’s classroom interaction may provide a reliable assessment of what goes on inside the classroom in terms of teaching and learning (Freiberg, 1981). Whilst it was not feasible within the short timescale of this research project to carry out such scientific analysis of teaching effectiveness, it is a technique which might be used in an extension of this research.

McNiff and Whitehead (2010) believe that triangulation of the resultant data is imperative to its analysis, and advise that considering the data from at least three different perspectives will enable the researcher to present more balanced research. To this end the information and opinion derived from both the literature review and the empirical research were triangulated and analysed in the preparation of this paper.

For ethical reasons the professionals who participated in the semi-structured interviews and classroom observation exercises have not been named but have been categorised in Table 1, overleaf.

The literature review

This section considers the literature available regarding the participation of children and young people in planning and regeneration with a view to expanding on the RTPI’s educational continuum and extending prior studies to explore the opportunities of embedding planning and regeneration into the primary school curriculum.

Hart’s (1997) theoretical model of a Ladder of Children’s Participation provided the theoretical framework for this research. He describes non-participation as manipulation, decoration and tokenism; defining manipulation as adults using children’s voices to express their own messages. An example lies in using a child to carry a placard which objects to toxic waste; clearly the child has no concept of the meaning of the text, and is therefore being manipulated. Hart (1997) introduces deception on the same bottom rung of the ladder, stating that it is more common than manipulation, occurring where adults deny their involvement in a project in pretence that it was orchestrated by children. He cites an example of a garden scheme designed by adults but with children carrying out simple planting tasks, then informing journalists and photographers that the children designed and constructed the project themselves (Hart, 1997).

Table 1 Professional participants in research

Professional	Location and Relevant Information	Research Methods
Primary 1 Teacher	Co Londonderry	Interview
	Involved in PLACE live project to bring built environment concepts into the classroom	Classroom Observation Site Visit
Architect	Co Londonderry	Interview
	Involved in PLACE live project to bring built environment concepts into the classroom	Classroom Observation Site Visit
Primary 3 Teacher	Co Down	Interview
Primary 4 Teacher	Co Antrim	Interview
	Teacher and Elected Representative
Primary 5 Teacher	Belfast	Interview
Primary 7 Teacher	Co Antrim	Interview
	School coordinator for Eco-Schools project
Teacher and Head of Geography Department	Grammar School, Co Antrim	Interview
Representatives from PLACE (Planning, Landscape, Architecture, Community, Environment)	Belfast Selected for their involvement in the PLACE pilot primary schools project	Meeting/interview

Decoration is on the second rung, and is depicted when children wear costumes or T-shirts promoting a cause, with limited knowledge of why they are wearing the promotional clothing. Hart (1997) considers decoration to be on a higher rung than manipulation due to the fact that adults do not pretend that the cause is inspired by children; they merely use children to reinforce the message.

Tokenism sits on the third rung, and according to Hart (1997) is a common form of children’s involvement borne of adults with deep concerns about children’s involvement, but little consideration is given as to how this can be achieved. In each of the three areas of non-participation, Hart (1997) explains the extent to which adults will go to ‘involve’ children, and how these non-participative methods potentially exploit the innocent nature of the subjects.

Perhaps more importantly, Hart (1997) identifies five models of genuine participation, but cautions that it is not necessary for children to always participate on the top rungs of the ladder, highlighting choice as being an important factor. He believes that children’s participative programmes ‘should be designed to maximise the opportunity to choose to participate at the highest level of his or her ability’ (Hart, 1997, p.42), listing factors affecting ability such as age, competency and cultural and language barriers. It is also considered that children may not choose to participate to the highest level of their ability on all projects, concurring with Hart’s earlier statement about choice being an important factor.

On the fourth rung of the ladder is ‘assigned but informed’, and Hart (1997) describes this as the most commonly used form of involving children. An example is given where children are involved in a project, and while they did not initiate it, they are kept fully informed and have ownership of the issue. On rung five of the ladder children are consulted and informed, where adults can design and manage a project but with input from children who understand the process, are consulted and cognisance is taken of their views.

On the sixth rung lies ‘adult initiated shared decisions with children’, in which Hart (1997) targets the difficult to reach and often excluded groups such as children, the elderly and the disabled. He advocates that the goal should be to involve everyone, divergent from the traditional tendency to exclude minority and less politically active groups. He suggests that it should be relatively straightforward to convince children and adults to participate in the planning and design of an environment in which they live, work or play. In addition in order to achieve a shared-decision process, Hart (1997) believes that children should have involvement in each stage of the process, including the technical design aspects so that they may gain an understanding of how and why compromises are made.

‘Child-initiated and child-directed’ occupies the seventh rung of the ladder, and Hart (1997) contends that such projects are rare outside children’s play. Whilst play is a tool for teaching a diverse range of skills such as team working and numeracy the design of children’s play areas often excludes the opinions and desires of the children who would use them. An example lies in a planning application which the author processed in 2004 for a replacement primary school. The proposals included a nature garden, hi-tech playground and soft play areas; however the children were not consulted by the school or design team. The project was initiated and delivered solely by adults without any consultation with the children; an opportunity lost.

The final rung on the ladder is ‘child initiated shared decisions with adults’, and Hart (1997) opines that children who can initiate projects and collaborate with adults demonstrate their confidence and ability as members of society. He elucidates that children who initiate a project should be allowed to continue to direct and manage it, with or without adult intervention and assistance; the choice of the child being imperative (Hart, 1997).

Hart (1997) argues that environmental education is inherently political; Peel (2007) argues that planning is similarly political, nonetheless, Veitch (2009) holds the view that education for citizenship (emphasis added) is a key purpose of the early years and school curriculum and of community education programmes, defining it as the development of a whole person, interrelated with education for personal growth and employment. According to Veitch (2009), responsible citizens should possess the knowledge and skills, but also be willing and able to use them to make decisions and where appropriate, take action with a sense of social end environmental responsibility.

Methods of engagement

Role-play is a familiar technique in planning education for introducing students to diverse and unfamiliar roles in the planning process (Peel, 2007). Workshops run as part of the Edinburgh International Festival invited participants, whether individually or in groups, to express and prioritise how the Scottish planning system encourages participation. The adults involved identified formal routes such as letters, public meetings and e-planning, however those with less practical experience identified a need to be made aware of what is happening, and a desire for clear explanation of the importance of participation (Peel, 2007). Evidentially there is ambiguity within adult understanding of planning and participation, and this research suggests that similar confusion potentially could be identified and resolved through children’s education.

Shepherd (2002) emphasises the importance of relating to children and young people, advising in the first instance honesty and treating them with respect. Other key qualities include having a sense of humour, being open and approachable, being clear about professional boundaries and considering the needs, culture and attention span of the group (Shepherd, 2002). She suggests a number of different strategies for involving children; examples considered relevant to this research included ‘paper carousel’ and ‘diamond ranking’. These are detailed in Boxes 1 and 2, overleaf.

For developers, communities and decision makers, one of the biggest challenges is ensuring that engagement is inclusive, meaningful and mutually beneficial (Planning Aid, 2010). By way of practical example, EDF Energy held a series of workshops for schoolchildren and young adults to help them to explore and articulate the issues involved with proposals for a nuclear power station in their local area; the resultant suggestions have influenced the project development (Planning Aid, 2010).

BOX 1: The Paper Carousel

Paper carousel works with sheets of flip chart paper with different questions written on each (such as “what positive/negative effects will the shopping centre development have?”) Each group has a sheet and writes down their opinions or ideas. The sheets are circulated and the groups read the ideas already on the sheet, tick the ones they agree with and add their own. The carousel is continued until each group has seen all of the questions and had a chance to add their ideas to the list. The sheets are finally returned to the original groups for feedback and display. This method allows ideas to be shared freely and enables consideration of issues in a structured format, where only one person in the group needs the confidence to speak out or write. Ideas are not repeated as they can be ticked instead, and this method provides a concise way of finding out people’s opinions.

(Source: Shepherd, 2002)

BOX 2: Diamond Ranking

Diamond ranking works with a set question such as “what facilities should your new school have?” and nine possible answers written on post-it notes (climbing frame, teachers, classrooms, pond, sports pitches etc.). Each group must then arrange the nine answers in a diamond shape with the most important on top and least important on the bottom, with the remaining ideas ranked in between. The group must have consensus and use of post-it notes enable the ideas to be moved around until a consensus is reached (Shepherd, 2002). This method allows ideas to be discussed without undue pressure, yet encourages people to justify why some issues are more important to them. Diamonds can be compared across different groups and clear information can be provided to decision makers.

(Source: Shepherd, 2002)

The curriculum

Key Stages 1 and 2

The National Curriculum is taught to all children in state or maintained schools in the UK and sets out primary education in two phases: Key Stage 1, which comprises years one and two of primary school; and Key Stage 2, which encompasses years three to six. Conversely, the Northern Ireland Primary School Curriculum divides primary school education into three phases: The Foundation Stage: Years one and two of primary education, Key Stage 1: Years three and four and Key Stage 2: Years five to seven. This research focuses on Key Stages 1 and 2 (Council for the Curriculum Examinations and Assessment (CCEA), 2010), and whilst it relates primarily to the Northern Ireland context, its outcomes have wider applicability. The curriculum for Key Stages 1 and 2 in Northern Ireland is set out in six areas of learning comprising:

The Arts (including art and design, music and opportunities to incorporate drama);

Language and Literacy (including talking and listening, reading and writing and opportunities to incorporate drama);

Mathematics and Numeracy (focusing on the development of mathematical concepts and numeracy across the curriculum);

Personal Development (focusing on the development of emotional development, learning to learn, health, relationships and sexuality education, understanding in the local and global community);

Physical Education (focusing on the development of knowledge, skills and understanding in a range of physical activities);

The World Around Us (focusing on the development of skills and knowledge in geography, history and science and technology).

Although curricular areas are set out separately, teachers are advised, where appropriate, to integrate learning across the six areas to make relevant connections for children and enhance their understanding. In addition, teachers are given considerable flexibility to select from within the curricular areas those aspects they consider appropriate to the ability and interests of their pupils (CCEA, 2010).

In order to ensure balanced and effective learning, teachers are encouraged to present materials and activities that are appropriate to the age and maturity of the child, taking account of gaps in children’s learning resulting from missed or interrupted schooling. The CCEA (2010) also requires teachers to identify aspects of learning that may present specific difficulties and adapt these as necessary, providing appropriate time to allow children to complete tasks satisfactorily; and where necessary provide additional materials and resources, including adaptive technologies and access devices to assist learning and modify tasks (or the environment in which they are presented), or provide alternative activities to facilitate the development of practical skills.

The objectives of the Northern Ireland Primary School Curriculum are to ensure that children have the opportunity and are facilitated to develop as individuals, contributors to society and contributors to the economy and environment. Table 2 (overleaf) details how the curriculum envisages that children can be facilitated to develop in these ways. Of particular relevance to this research are areas such as ‘Moral Character’ which deals with fairness in decision-making, promotion of responsibility and developing respect for others. ‘Citizenship’ is also considered to be particularly significant to the research as it teaches children to be aware of their rights and responsibilities as contributors to society. Similarly issues taught under the headings of cultural understanding, media and ethical awareness, employability, economic awareness and environmental responsibility are all considered pertinent to providing a basis for effective children’s participation in planning and regeneration strategies.

Table 2 Children as individuals, contributors to society and contributors to economy and environment

Individuals	Contributors to Society	Contributors to the Economy and Environment
Throughout Key Stages 1 and 2 teachers should help children to: Personal and Mutual Understanding develop self-confidence, self-esteem and self discipline; understand their own and others feelings and emotions; develop their motivation to learn, and their individual creative potential; listen to and interact positively with others; explore and understand how others live; Personal Health develop positive attitudes towards an active and healthy lifestyle, relationships, personal growth and change; become aware of key issues which affect their physical, social and mental well-being and that of others; Moral Character understand that values, choices and decisions should be informed by a sense of fairness; take responsibility for their actions; develop tolerance and mutual respect for others; Spiritual Understanding develop a sense of awe and wonder about the world around them.	Throughout Key Stages 1 and 2 teachers should help children to: Citizenship become aware of some of their rights and responsibilities; become aware of some of the issues and problems in society; contribute to creating a better world for those around them; Cultural Understanding understand some of their own and others’ cultural traditions; be aware of how we rely on each other; Media Awareness be aware of, and use, information available to us through all sorts of media; become aware of the potential impact of media in influencing our personal views, choices and decisions; Ethical Awareness become aware of the imbalances in the world around us, at both a local and a global level; become aware of the potential impact of developments upon the lives of others.	Throughout Key Stages 1 and 2 teachers should help children to: Employability develop literacy, numeracy and ICT skills; develop their aptitudes, abilities and creativity; be willing to expand their learning and performance throughout their lives; work independently, and as a member of a team, developing perseverance, initiative and flexibility; be willing to take calculated risks when appropriate; use critical and creative thinking to solve problems and make decisions; identify the main reasons why people set up their own business; Economic Awareness learn to manage their money and build up savings; interpret information in order to make informed choices as consumers; Environmental Responsibility appreciate the environment and their role in maintaining and improving it; understand how actions can affect the environment.

(Adapted from CCEA, 2010)

Whole curriculum skills and capabilities

At the heart of the primary school curriculum lies an explicit emphasis on the development of skills and capabilities for life-long learning and for operating effectively in society. Through opportunities to engage in active learning contexts across all areas of the curriculum, the intention is to develop children’s personal, interpersonal and learning skills and their ability to think both creatively and critically.

The CCEA (2010) specifically highlights communication skills and capabilities as being central to the whole curriculum, elucidating that children should be able to communicate in order to express themselves socially, emotionally and physically, to develop as an individual, engage with others and contribute as a member of society. The CCEA (2010) considers that personal and interpersonal skills underpin success in all aspects of life. It is therefore considered to be imperative that children’s self-esteem and self-confidence are explicitly fostered along with the ability to understand and manage their own emotions and to interact effectively with others.

Teachers are required to help children to develop skills and capabilities by focusing on areas such as Managing Information to ensure that children understand the potential and utility of using information to support their own learning and creativity. The CCEA (2010) suggests that children should be given opportunities to manage information on a range of tasks by:

• asking focused questions;

• learning to set goals for their work;

• breaking tasks down into sub-tasks and planning their next steps;

• using their own and others’ ideas to identify and locate various sources of information

• learning to classify, compare and evaluate information;

• selecting the most appropriate method for a particular task;

• using a range of methods for collating, recording and representing information.

The methodology outlined above for management of information and tasks can be clearly linked to the goals of planning; indeed each of the points above can be individually and cumulatively linked to the analytical skills that professional planners require.

Thinking, problem solving and decision making

The CCEA (2010) requires that children have the ability to use active thinking processes to deepen understanding, to solve problems, cope with challenges and make decisions; it is recommended that children are given the opportunity to think actively across a range of tasks by:

• sequencing, ordering, classifying and making comparisons;

• making predictions and looking for evidence, distinguishing fact from opinion; justifying methods, opinions and conclusions;

• making links between causes and effects;

• examining options and weighing up pros and cons;

• generating a range of solutions and trying out alternative approaches;

• using different types of questions with purpose;

• using appropriate vocabulary to enhance explanations; making connections between their learning and different contexts.

Once again, the range of activities and skills outlined above reflect some of the activities and skills that professional planners utilise on a daily basis — yet there may be few or no links to planning and regeneration identified in the classroom. One of the aims of the classroom observation sessions and semi-structured interviews was to identify existing (and opportunities for new) links to planning, regeneration and environmental concepts which are appropriate to the children’s level of understanding.

Creativity, group work and self management

The curriculum also requires children to be able to use creative approaches, to be imaginative and inventive, to explore possibilities and take risks in their learning with opportunities to think creatively across a range of tasks by:

• experimenting with questions and ideas in a playful way;

• seeking out questions to explore and problems to solve;

• challenging the routine method, accepting that there is not always a ‘right’ answer;

• valuing the unexpected or surprising;

• seeing opportunities from mistakes or failures.

The ability to work collaboratively and cooperatively is considered to be fundamental to demonstrating attitudes of fairness and responsibility, with children being given opportunities to work with others across a range of tasks by demonstrating their ability to:

• listen actively and share opinions;

• develop the routines of turn-taking, sharing and cooperating;

• understand how their actions affect others;

• adapt behaviour and language to suit different people and situations;

• take personal responsibility for work with others;

• give and respond to feedback;

• be fair;

• respect the views and opinions of others, reaching agreements using negotiation and compromise.

In addition, children should be able to manage their own learning and behaviour in more self-directed ways by actively reviewing themselves and their work. They should be given opportunities to mange their own learning and behaviour across a range of tasks and situations by:

• being aware of their personal strengths, limitations and interests;

• managing emotions and behaviour in a range of situations;

• organising and planning how to go about a task;

• talking about what they learn and some aspect that could be improved;

• learning ways of managing their own time;

• focusing, sustaining attention and persevering with tasks;

• seeking advice when necessary;

• comparing their approach with others.

The preceding paragraphs clearly demonstrate the repetitive links that exist between the primary school curriculum and planning and regeneration, however the empirical research sought to investigate whether this relationship can be mutually beneficial.

The world around us

A key component of the curriculum which is most relevant to this research requires the teaching of and investigation into ‘the world around us’, which combines aspects of Geography, History and Science and Technology allowing children opportunities to explore and investigate and think about their world, past, present and future. The purpose of learning about ‘the world around us’ within the primary curriculum is to provide opportunities for children to develop:

• self-confidence and self-esteem in expressing and sharing their thoughts and ideas and developing an appreciation of the beauty and wonder of the world;

• an awareness of themselves and their place in the world, as well as of other places, cultures and the environment;

• an awareness of Information and Communication Technology and its impact on society and the world around them (CCEA, 2010).

Table 3 Incorporating ‘The World Around Us’ into the curriculum

Subject Area	Linkage
The Arts	by observing recording and representing their work through Art and Design and Music;
Language and Literacy	by researching and expressing opinions and ideas about people and places in the world around us past, present and future;
Mathematics and Numeracy	by exploring different ways of solving problems by collecting, formulating and interpreting numerical data and by exploring shapes and patterns occurring naturally in the environment;
Personal Development	by developing insights into their own talents, thoughts and feelings and by comparing and contrasting the experiences and feelings of other people in other places and times;
Physical Education	by exploring how the body works and by finding out about and accessing facilities in the local and wider community.

(Adapted from CCEA, 2010)

The CCEA (2010) recommend that where possible, ‘the world around us’ should be integrated into cross-curricular topics and linked to the other areas of the curriculum as indicated in Table 3. The preceding paragraphs and Table 3 further indicate the potential to link many of these concepts to planning and regeneration without dominating the primary school curriculum.

The unsinkable thematic unit

By way of a practical example CCEA (2009) published a document entitled ‘Unsinkable Thematic Unit’ for use as a teaching aid which combines selected components of the Northern Ireland Primary School curriculum. Based on the Titanic disaster, the unit explores facts, opinions and myths associated with the historic event. Through prescribed exercises, children are challenged to form and express opinions and make decisions, to explore the qualities of others and to make considered and rational judgements (CCEA, 2009).

In the second section of the unit the children investigate floating and sinking, with opportunities to plan, predict, carry out, record and make deductions based on a number of interesting and challenging activities.

Table 4 Current curricular content supplemented with potential participation component

Current Content	Potential Further Links to Planning and Regeneration Participation
Who were the cranes named after? Why? When were they erected? Why?	Who were the cranes named after? Why? When were they erected? Why? How and why are they being preserved? Who is involved in the preservation? Who had a say?
Research the stages of the development and construction of the Titanic. Compile a timeline of the building of the Titanic. Research the industries in Northern Ireland that were linked to the building of the Titanic.	What is the historical significance of the Titanic? Is this historical significance worth preserving? What physical attributes are worthy of preservation for future generations? Who decides?
Explore the planned re-development of the Titanic Quarter. Use Google Earth to locate the Titanic Quarter on a map of Belfast.	Map how the area has changed over time. What new technologies now negate the requirement for some buildings/ uses?
Study the plans for the Titanic Quarter and Northern Ireland Science Park which contains the Titanic dock. Explore what has been built already in Titanic Quarter and infrastructure that is already in place. How has the past been preserved in the area?	Who has been involved in the proposed plans and why? What was their interest? How did they engage in the planning process?
Research the Nomadic’s link with the Titanic. Compile a list of questions in a group to find out about the Nomadic. Examples could include: When was it built? What was it used for? Plan and make a visit to the Titanic Quarter and the Nomadic. Keep a digital record of your visit. Present the learning on display boards in the classroom.	Use the display boards and internet resources to tell the story of the evolution of the area over time. Examine why the area has changed — e.g. changes in industrial focus, technology, market forces, land shortage. Examine how the new buildings sit with those historic buildings that have been preserved.
Examine the buildings erected in the Northern Ireland Science Park. Explore how in the Titanic Quarter, buildings are used in new ways, for example, the former paint room for Harland & Wolff ships is sometimes used as a studio for film sets. As a class, conduct a survey to find out what facilities people would like to see included in the Titanic Quarter. Use ICT to present the results of the survey.	Consider how the proposals for Titanic Quarter evolved. Who was consulted and involved in the process and why? Were local schools given the opportunity to contribute? Use dot voting to establish which facilities the children would like to see.
Challenge the children to work in groups to design a building for the modern day Titanic Quarter. Explain that their design should have a modern purpose but must also reflect history.	Consider the use of adjacent buildings e.g. Is it appropriate to locate a sewage plant beside expensive apartments? What problems would arise out of incompatible adjacent uses?
Encourage pupils to create a brochure to advertise their building to tourists. Generate and agree success criteria for the design. Evaluate each others’ brochures according to the success criteria. Use ICT to present their design and advert.	Consider the importance of heritage in the brochure — is it a selling feature for tourists?
Use a strategy such as Dot Voting to select the best design based on the agreed success criteria.	Evaluate if the best design adequately preserves and enhances the history of the site; if not, why is it considered to be the best design

Although many of the learning outcomes associated with this unit are broadly related to planning and citizenship concepts, it is Activity Six, focusing on Titanic Quarter, Belfast, which is considered to be most relevant to this research. This activity asks questions such as “Where is the Titanic Quarter? What happened there in the past? What is happening there now? What will the Titanic Quarter look like in the future?” (CCEA, 2009), all of which introduce creative thinking around planning, regeneration and active citizenship.

The suggested learning outcomes of this activity are that children will learn that some buildings have been used in the past for different purposes; be able to locate relevant information and use it appropriately; use ICT to record and present data; and identify and use appropriate sources to gain information (CCEA, 2009). Suggested tasks involve research into the Samson and Goliath cranes at Harland and Wolff and the new development at Titanic Quarter. Table 4 shows the CCEA suggested content in the column on the left, with potential further links to planning and regeneration participation in the column on the right, demonstrating the added value that this research could bring to the curriculum.

The ‘unsinkable thematic unit’ (CCEA, 2009) illustrates one way of integrating learning across the three contributory elements of History, Geography and Science and Technology within ‘the world around us’. It also shows how the strands that make this up are interrelated. ‘Unsinkable’ is a theme that has been derived from a topic that many schools are already familiar with, the Titanic. This was the stimulus and starting point for developing a thematic approach within ‘the world around us’.

This section has examined the Northern Ireland Primary School Curriculum with a view to finding an opportunity for planning and regeneration participation to be incorporated into the core themes. While it is clear that there are many opportunities within the prescribed curriculum for teachers to relate their teaching to planning and regeneration, in order to provide children with the knowledge and skills to harness effective citizenship and participation, the actual content of teaching may tend to disregard these opportunities.

Clearly the current curriculum incorporates ideas relating to civic formation and the significance of an interest in public affairs, respect and trust, political equality, and a sense of public-spiritedness in preparing the way for active public engagement; however the empirical research discussed in the next section details how these concepts are being interpreted in the classroom.

Empirical Research

This section reports on the practical research undertaken to ascertain if and how children might be educated to become involved in planning and regeneration participation strategies.

Primary and secondary linkages

In order to establish what linkages exist between the existing primary and secondary education regime in Northern Ireland, an interview was carried out with the Head of the Geography Department at a Co Antrim Grammar School. The interviewee indentified the fact that many references to planning and regeneration exist in the grammar school curriculum, and indeed many of the exercises instigated by her teaching staff relate directly to citizenship and participation in these areas, however, she believes that there remains a requirement for a basic foundation in these areas, as the children she teaches often have little prior knowledge and understanding of citizenship and participation.

Notably, while the primary school curriculum includes subject areas such as citizenship, informed decision-making and environmental responsibility, it is possible (although this assumption is based on only one opinion) that these linkages might not be made successfully in the classroom at Key Stages 1 and 2; alternatively the primary and secondary/grammar school curricula may be out of synch. The purpose of the remainder of the empirical research was therefore to establish if these connections are being made in the classroom.

Case study - PLACE primary pilot project

A current pilot project is being undertaken by Planning, Landscape, Architecture, Community and Environment (PLACE) in Northern Ireland, in partnership with the Solent Centre for Architecture and Design, the Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment, the Arts Council for England and Snug Projects. A workshop was held in January 2010 to explore the potential of the built environment to assist in the delivery of the existing primary school curriculum. Facilitated by Solent, the workshop provided the resources for individual participating schools to begin to implement specific built environment concepts in their own teaching and learning environments.

During the PLACE facilitated workshop, current levels of knowledge and understanding were identified and misunderstandings clarified. Potential curriculum opportunities for teaching and learning using the built environment were explored. Presentations demonstrated how diversely the built environment can be used in cross curricular themes. Examples are set out in Table 5, overleaf.

Whilst the participating teaching staff and associated built environment professionals were contacted in relation to this research, only one of the teaching timetables fell within the time limit for this empirical research. The classroom observation and teacher interviews were conducted in two sessions, one before the implementation of the PLACE pilot project, and one after, and the results compared to assess the potential for the education of children for engagement in planning and regeneration issues. Whilst the PLACE project employs built environment professionals to assist the teaching staff, none of the volunteers are planners; the focus of this research was therefore to identify built environment content, rather than purely planning and regeneration content.

Table 5 Use of built environment as a learning instrument

Project	Subject	Activity
Survey of School	Maths	Measuring
	Geography	Angle Survery
	Art	Questionnaires
		Recording
		Photography
Sketch Up	IT	Design and build
	Art	Mapping
	Geography	Spatial analysis
Bridge Building	Physics	How bridges work
	Art	How they are designed
	Design	Performance criteria
	Maths	Design and build
	Economics	Cost & viability

Observed existing structure of the classroom session

During a short observation of a ‘normal’ classroom session, little built environment content was identified, with the focus being on counting, shapes and colours. It was suggested however that the objects being counted could relate to the built environment (e.g. counting houses), as could the shapes and colours. The teacher, however, considered that this would displace the focus of the activity.

Observed PLACE structure of the classroom session

The first classroom observation session lasted for approximately thirty minutes, and was conducted primarily by the architect, with assistance provided by the teacher. The teacher introduced the architect and researcher (the observer) and asked the children if they remembered the architect’s profession. Approximately a third of the class (ten children) raised their hands and gave answers such as ‘she draws plans’ and ‘she built our porch’ (the architect had recently completed an extension at the school, and the children had met her before), indicating a sound understanding of her job.

The children were shown a number of photographs of various markets and the architect led the discussion about what was sold at a market (the children correctly identified fruit andvegetables); then children compared covered and uncovered markets, explored why some markets are covered (rain, wind, sun) and the types of canopy or roof used to cover the market. The architect explained that the shapes inside the roof of the market held it together, and asked the children to identify the different shapes (triangle, square, and rhombus).

The architect then led a discussion about the types of materials that would be suitable to cover the market to protect it from rain, wind and sun; the children identified plastic as being suitable and paper as being unsuitable as it would not be waterproof and may tear. The children were shown a picture of a folding bird market in Barcelona, which is open in the daytime, and folded away at night, with only a closed structure like a telephone box remaining. The children were intrigued by the changing nature of this structure.

The children were then moved to the back of the classroom (perhaps partly to retain their attention) where the architect produced a model she had constructed from drinking straws. The model showed a simple roof structure and the children were asked to identify the shapes involved (triangle, rhombus, cylinder). A second model showed the structure in section form and the architect explained that foundations (the building’s feet) were needed underground to support the structure. She described the concrete footings as a ‘big lump of rock’ and explained that all buildings need foundations or footings underground to keep them up — even the school extension, to which the children could easily relate as the teacher had taken the class on numerous visits to the site whilst the extension was under construction.

The architect explained, with the help of the model, that beams sit on the columns and support the rafters. She introduced the children to the concept of ‘scale’ indicating that the real market is about twenty times larger than the model.

The session required the children to actively participate by listening, observing and touching the model and responding to questions. Their attention was retained by the teacher requiring them to fold their arms, and on one occasion sing a song while the photographs were being loaded onto the overhead projector. The children responded well to the content of the session and were excited about the market concept and the model. The novelty of having a guest teacher also seemed to spark their enthusiasm.

PLACE Participant Interviews

During a short interview with both the architect and teacher following the classroom session, it was agreed that the children had the ability to understand simple built environment concepts. It was suggested that the children could have been asked which type of market they prefer or which colour canopy they like — a question to which there is no right answer — to teach them in terms of citizenship that they can voice an opinion which may differ from someone else’s. Another suggestion, from a planning perspective, was that the issue of ownership could have been discussed: the council owned the land, but cannot build on it without planning permission — a comparison could be drawn with their own homes — whilst their parents probably own their house and garden, they would need permission to build a house in the garden. From a regeneration perspective, the children could be asked to compare old and new, stating which they prefer and why. Both the architect and teacher were receptive to these ideas, and the teacher considered them to be appropriate to the children’s level of understanding.

The site visit

The teacher had prepared clipboards for the children in advance of the site visit, which contained activities for the children to complete. Accompanied by their teacher, the architect and researcher as observer, the children walked to a local market, carrying out various observation activities on the way. An example is a picture of a door handle that the children had to locate on the way to the market. The site visit was considered (by the children, teacher and architect) to be successful in encouraging the children to engage with the built environment, and be more aware of their surroundings.

The semi-structured interviews

Semi-structured interviews were carried out with selected teachers from various primary schools across Northern Ireland. The teachers were selected based on geographical spread, and the year group taught in order that a selection of responses might be obtained for analysis. Following a short introduction regarding the aims and objectives of the research, and an explanation of what is meant by planning and regeneration, a series of questions was asked to each of the participants.

Question 1: How do you incorporate ‘the world around us’ into lessons?

Each of the participants advised that they used topics, such as living things or homes and houses to be studied for half a term. The topics cover a broad expanse of the curriculum and reach beyond ‘the world around us’ in many instances. One teacher chose ‘local government’ as a topic, and staged a mock election in the classroom. The participants all stated that they chose topics they were comfortable with and had the knowledge and expertise to follow through. The responses to this question highlight the diversity of topics which can be covered within the current curriculum, and demonstrate that opportunities which exist for promoting planning and citizenship, are being exploited only by teachers comfortable with those concepts.

Question 2: How do you incorporate ‘citizenship’ into lessons?

The majority of respondents identified ‘circle time’ as their opportunity to incorporate citizenship into their lessons, an exercise which is undertaken for approximately half an hour each fortnight, and involves the children taking turns to talk and listen. One respondent identified citizenship as a concept which is taught daily in the classroom, such as treating others with respect, putting litter in the bin and listening when someone else is talking. Another teacher described a project in which her class had been involved in tree planting within the school grounds, which involved representatives of the community.

Question 3: Are you aware of the ‘unsinkable thematic unit’? If so have you used it or any of the concepts contained within it?

None of the interviewees were aware of this teaching unit, and the majority of respondents expressed a preference to choose their own topics, based on subjects they felt competent to teach. One respondent, when the teaching unit was explained to her, advised that she might ‘dip into’ it and extract information or activities suited to the learning capabilities of her class.

Question 4: Do you, or could you use self-designed topics to bring planning and regeneration into the classroom? If so, how?

With the exception of the Primary 5 teacher (who considered it to be too advanced for her class), all of the interviewees agreed that they could use self-designed topics to bring planning and regeneration concepts into the classroom. Suggestions were made such as project work on the locality, how homes and living requirements have changed over time and a trail for the children to follow, incorporating simple mapping skills together with observation and recording skills.

Question 5: Do you ensure connections between planning, regeneration and citizenship? If so, how?

The participants were clearly unsure how best to make these linkages, and suggestions such as reviewing the children’s current knowledge and considering the knowledge gap were made, somewhat tentatively, by three of the participants. It is suggested that the underlying reason for the teachers’ apparent reluctance to connect the concepts may relate to a lack of confidence in teaching the subject areas.

Question 6: Public participation is central to planning and regeneration projects and the planning process enables the voices of the public to be heard. Can you think of any ways that school children might become involved (in a real life situation)?

Some of the interviewees suggested that the children might become involved in the design of new facilities nearby, such as a new play park or school extension. In some schools the pupils’ council would act as the representative body. One respondent gave an example of how her class had redesigned a redundant play park and then presented their collective ideas to an elected representative. Another interviewee stated that her school has become involved in local competitions to design, for example, public gardens.

Question 7: At what age do you think primary school children might be most receptive to lessons with a planning/ regeneration content?

The majority of respondents considered all primary school children to be potentially receptive to the introduction of planning and regeneration concepts, provided they are suitably tailored to the children’s level of understanding. Only two respondents considered primary 6 and Key Stage 2 (Primary 5–7) to be the most appropriate ages.

Question 8: If building or redevelopment work has been undertaken at your school, were the children’s opinions sought?

Four of the five schools have been subject to extension, renovation or building works (although two of these related only to playground upgrades). Nevertheless, in the case of the playground works, the children were informally consulted by individual teachers; whilst in the case of the two replacement schools, the children were neither consulted about what they would like or need, nor kept informed throughout the process. Whilst it is not certain if the decision not to consult the end-users of the project was made consciously, in the assumption that the children would not understand the concepts, all the interviewees agreed that the children should be consulted in the future.

Question 9: PLACE is currently undertaking a live project where architects and teachers are working together to design topics which enable built environment concepts to be incorporated into everyday teaching. If such a facility was made available to you, perhaps with a planning professional, would you welcome it? Why?

With the exception of the PLACE Pilot Project Participant, none of those interviewed were aware of the scheme, however they all agreed that working with planning professionals to bring their expertise into the classroom would be beneficial. One interviewee stated, “it would be a great idea as primary school teachers are expected to be experts at everything — which is clearly not feasible”.

The interviews have demonstrated that the scope within the current curriculum for teachers to relate their teaching to planning and regeneration is not always being maximised in order to provide children with the knowledge and skills to harness effective citizenship and participation. Moreover, the emphasis which the curriculum places on individual teacher interpretation means that only teachers who are comfortable with the concepts tend to bring fundamental lessons of civic responsibility into the classroom.

This section has detailed and examined the empirical research undertaken to establish if and how children can be educated to become involved in planning and regeneration participation strategies. The next section summarises and concludes the research with some tentative recommendations as to how we might ensure that children have the knowledge and skills to be able to participate in planning and regeneration processes.

Conclusion and Recommendations

This research has considered that as the longest term stakeholders in society, children often remain outside participatory processes and form a section of society with little or no influence over decision making. The literature review and empirical research have highlighted several approaches to engaging children in decision making, such as the paper carousel, diamond ranking and participation in the regeneration of a local play park. Moreover, the PLACE project has added value by facilitating the joined-up thinking of teaching and built environment professionals to deliver enhanced built environment content in the classroom.

Whilst the PLACE project is ongoing, the Flanders’ Interactive Analysis technique may indeed provide the mechanism for monitoring its success on completion.

The research has established that scope exists within the primary school curriculum for further engagement with the built environment; however, the teacher involved in the live PLACE project slightly lacked confidence in teaching this type of subject. The sessions with the architect were considered to be extremely useful as the architect brought the expertise to the classroom, whilst the teacher ensured the content was delivered at a level appropriate to the children’s understanding. It is accepted that this is not strategically feasible in the long term and that the teaching content would have to come directly from the teacher, but this pilot project has given some scope for further thought as to how such built environment content can effectively be delivered by the teacher. It may be that a scheme of work is devised so that any teacher can engage the children in these types of activities; similarly, a half day course could be facilitated by PLACE with teaching staff in mind (although it is recognised that this would have to fall during a time when the children are not at school to avoid the schools incurring the additional cost of substitute teaching staff).

Despite having a recently completed building project at the school, and having previously met the architect, the children were not involved in the design of the school extension; it is suggested that in future, school extensions and alterations should involve the children attending the school — this would invoke a sense of civic responsibility, further preparing them for effective citizenship. Some may consider this approach to be premature, taking the attitude ‘let them be children’, however, the author considers that the opinion of the grammar school interviewee (that primary school children are inadequately prepared for the grammar school topics of planning and regeneration) requires further consideration, promoted by the fact that the primary school children were evidentially able to engage with simplified built environment concepts.

The semi-structured interviews further verified the potential within the current primary school curriculum to introduce planning and regeneration concepts. Clearly there is a considerable lack of confidence amongst those teaching staff interviewed, who choose topics with which they are familiar to deliver the curriculum content. One participant, who is also an elected representative sitting on the Council Planning Committee, had a clear understanding of the concepts and felt confident enough to stage a mock election in her classroom. Similarly, citizenship could be coupled with planning concepts in a mock debate as to whether a proposal should be granted planning permission, perhaps in relation to a development near the school. This may be an initiative deliverable in conjunction with a planning school as advocated by Skippers (2010). Another respondent described her initiation of the regeneration of a nearby play park, where the class designed the new area and presented their collective ideas to a member of the local council. This demonstrates how primary school children have the capabilities to understand and contribute to society in relation to issues that affect them directly.

This research has demonstrated that opportunities exist to make planning ‘more visible’ (Skippers, 2010) in the classroom and to ensure that future generations have the skills and knowledge required to become citizens who actively participate in society. As the longest term stakeholders in society (Badham, 2002) it is our civic responsibility to ensure that children are nurtured and provided with the knowledge and skills to harness effective citizenship and participation, both now and in the future.

Acknowledgements

This research was undertaken whilst at the University of Ulster as part of an Integrated Master’s in Planning and Property Development. The author would like to acknowledge the support received from Dr. Deborah Peel, Alona Martinez-Perez and Dr. Claudia Trillo.