1,854
Views
7
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

The Children of the Reformation: Childhood Palaeoepidemiology in Britain, ad 1000–1700

Pages 162-194 | Published online: 20 Oct 2014
 

Abstract

CHILDHOOD IS A TIME of rapid biological growth and development, and a stage of the life course during which bodies are particularly sensitive to social and environmental stressors. As a consequence, events which may impact upon a child’s care and treatment can become physically embodied within their bones and teeth. The skeletal remains of children have been neglected within archaeological discourse until recently, but they are, in fact, a particularly important demographic for understanding the impact of social processes on past population health. This research examines the prevalence of skeletal disease in children (≤16 years) in Britain (England, Wales and Scotland) between ad 1000 and 1700. Data for a total of 4,626 children from 95 sites were collated from published and unpublished skeletal reports and analysed for evidence of skeletal changes reflecting disease. A biocultural approach was adopted in which the evidence was interpreted in relation to ecological, social, economic and environmental conditions. It was observed that childhood levels of skeletal stress did increase significantly after 1540. It was noted that during the Reformation sociocultural and economic factors added to stressors in the ecology of the medieval child. The effects of the Reformation were found to be the greatest aggravator in the rise of morbidity prevalence over seven centuries. Differences in morbidity patterns between non-adult age categories indicated that a state of ‘childhood’ existed until at least eleven years of age, after which there appears to have been a gradual transition into adolescence and adulthood.

Résumé

L’enfance est une période de croissance biologique et de développement accélérés et une étape de la vie à laquelle les organismes sont particulièrement sensibles aux facteurs de stress social et environnemental. Par conséquent, les événements qui ont un impact sur les soins et le traitement d’un enfant peuvent s’incarner physiquement dans son squelette et sa dentition. Jusqu’à récemment, les squelettes d’enfant étaient négligés par le discours archéologique, alors qu’ils sont en réalité un indice démographique particulièrement important pour comprendre l’impact des processus sociaux sur la santé des populations antérieures. Cette étude examine la prévalence des maladies osseuses chez les enfants (≤16 ans) en Grande-Bretagne (Angleterre, pays de Galles et Écosse), entre 1000 et 1700. Les données de 4626 enfants provenant de 95 sites, rassemblées à partir de rapports osseux publiés ou non, ont été analysées pour déceler des indices de transformations osseuses indicatrices de pathologies. Une approche bioculturelle a été adoptée dans laquelle les indices ont été interprétés par rapport aux conditions écologiques, sociales, économiques et environnementales. On a observé que les niveaux de stress osseux chez les enfants augmentent significativement à partir de 1540. On a noté que, pendant la Réforme, des facteurs socioculturels et écon­omiques sont venus s’ajouter aux facteurs de stress dans l’écologie de l’enfant médiéval. Les effets de la Réforme sont apparus comme le principal facteur aggravant dans la prévalence croissante de la morbidité sur une période de 700 ans. Les différences de morbidité entre les catégories d’âge non-adulte laissent entrevoir une phase “d’enfance” jusqu’à 11 ans au moins, l’âge à partir duquel une transition graduelle vers l’adolescence et l’âge adulte semble se produire.

Zusammenfassung

Die Kindheit ist eine Zeit von raschen biologischen Wachstums und schneller Entwicklung und ein Lebensstadium, in dem der Körper besonders empfindlich auf die Stressfaktoren aus Gesellschaft und Umwelt reagiert. Folglich können Ereignisse, die sich auf die Fürsorge für Kinder und ihre Behandlung auswirken, sich körperlich in deren Knochen und Zähnen niederschlagen. Die Skelettüberreste von Kindern wurden bis vor kurzem im archäologischen Diskurs eher vernachlässigt: Aber tatsächlich sind Kinder eine besonders wichtige Bevölkerungsgruppe, wenn man die Auswirkungen gesellschaftlicher Prozesse auf die Gesundheit vergangener Populationen verstehen will. Die vorliegende Forschungsarbeit untersucht die Häufigkeit von Skeletterkrankungen bei Kindern (≤16 Jahre) in Großbritannien (England, Wales und Schottland) zwischen ad 1000 und 1700. Aus veröffentlichten und unveröffentlichten Berichten über Skelettuntersuchungen wurden Date­n für insgesamt 4626 Kinder von 95 Fundstätten zusammengeführt und auf Belege für krankheitsbedingte Skelettveränderungen untersucht. Es wurde ein biokultureller Ansatz verwendet, in dem das Beweismaterial mit Bezug auf ökologische, soziale, ökonomische und Umweltbedingungen interpretiert wurde­n. Es wurde beobachtet, dass nach 1540 die Auswirkungen von Stress auf das Skelett von Kindern signifikant zunahm. Es wurde angemerkt, dass während der Reformation soziokulturelle und wirtschaftliche Faktoren in der Ökologie des mittelalterlichen Kindes noch zusätzliche Stressfaktoren hinzufügten. Es wurde festgestellt, dass die Auswirkungen der Reformation sieben Jahrhunderte lang die größte Verschlimmerung in der Häufigkeit von Erkrankungen erzeugten. Unterschiede in Erkrankungsmustern zwischen verschiedenen nicht erwachsenen Altersgruppen deuten darauf hin, dass ein Zustand der “Kindheit” bis mindestens zum Alter von elf Jahren existierte und dass es danach einen allmählichen Übergang in die Jugend und ins Erwachsensein gegeben hat.

Riassunto

L’infanzia è un periodo di rapida crescita e sviluppo biologico, ed è uno stadio nel corso della vita durante il quale il corpo è particolarmente sensibile agli agenti stressanti sociali e ambientali. Per questo motivo gli eventi che hanno avuto un impatto nella cura e nel trattamento dei bambini possono restare fisicamente impressi nelle ossa e nei denti. Nelle dissertazioni archeologiche i resti ossei dei bambini sono stati trascurati fino a non molto tempo fa, mentre, di fatto, sono un elemento demografico particolarmente importante per capire l’impatto dei processi sociali sulla salute delle popolazioni passate. Questa ricerca esamina la prevalenza di malattie dello scheletro in bambini (≤16 anni) in Gran Bretagn­a (Inghilterra, Galles e Scozia) tra il 1000 e il 1700 dC. I dati per il totale di 4626 bambini di 95 siti diversi, ricavati da relazioni sugli scheletri pubblicate e non pubblicate, sono stati collazionati e analizzati per verificare i mutamenti dello scheletro che riflettessero malattie. Si è adottato un approccio bioculturale secondo il quale l’evidenza è stata interpretata in rapporto alle condizioni ecologiche, sociali, economiche e ambientali. Si è osservato che i livelli di stress dello scheletro aumentarono in modo rilevante dopo il 1540. Si è notato che durante la Riforma fattori socioculturali ed economici si aggiunsero agli agenti stressanti nell’ecologia dei bambini medievali. Si è scoperto che gli effetti della Riforma sono stati il maggiore fattore aggravante nell’aumento della prevalenza della morbidità sull’arco di sette secoli. Le differenze nell’andamento della morbidità tra le categorie di individui non adulti indicavano che uno stato di ‘infanzia’ permaneva almeno fino agli undici anni di età, dopo la quale sembra esserci stata una transizione graduale verso l’adolescenza e l’età adulta.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks are due to Sarah Bultz at Cambridgeshire County Council Archaeology Field Unit, Kirsty Stonell-Walker at English Heritage, Christopher Guy at Worcester Cathedral, Dr Anwen Caffell and Malin Holst at York Osteology, Dr Louise Loe and Helen Webb at Oxford Archaeology and Pia Nystrom at Sheffield University for their extensive help acquiring reports and instruction. Thanks also to Professor Roberta Gilchrist for her help finding elusive site reports, as well as for the creation of the Requiem database which was essential to this work. Thanks to Dr Jonathan Waterlow and Felicia Fricke for their input. Final thanks to Alice Rose for her frequent insights, proofing reading, GIS tutorials and valued friendship.

Notes

1 Oxford Archaeology, Janus House, Osney Mead, Oxford, Oxfordshire OX2 0ES. [email protected]

2 Durham University, Department of Archaeology, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, UK. [email protected]

3 Bolton Citation1980, 345.

4 Rushton Citation2001, 9.

5 Orme and Webster Citation1995, 65; Ives Citation2012, 26.

6 McKintosh Citation1988, 216.

7 Greene Citation1992, 178; McKintosh Citation1988, 225.

8 McKintosh Citation1988, 230.

9 Gilchrist Citation2012, 44.

10 Goodman and Armelagos Citation1989.

11 Derevenski Citation2001, 9; Turner and Andrushko Citation2011, 44.

12 Wells Citation1967, 159.

13 Schofield Citation2011, 11.

14 Halcrow and Tayles Citation2011, 346; Lewis Citation2007, 9.

15 Halcrow and Tayles Citation2011, 348; Boswell Citation1984, 10; Orme Citation2008, 106; Lewis Citation2009, 104.

16 Ariès Citation1962, 356.

17 Gilchrist Citation2012, 42; Hanawalt Citation1993, 5; Shahar Citation1992, 3.

18 Halcrow and Tayles Citation2008, 192; Gowland Citation2006, 143.

19 Orme Citation1994, 578.

20 Orme Citation2001, 8.

21 Gilchrist Citation2012, 42; Hanawalt Citation1993, 5; Shahar Citation1992, 3.

22 Heywood Citation2001, 60; Rawcliffe Citation1999, 202; Lewis and Gowland Citation2007.

23 Gilchrist Citation2012, 138.

24 Shahar Citation1992, 35.

25 Orme Citation2001, 62; Hanawalt Citation1986, 175; Finucane Citation1997, 39; Houlbrooke Citation1986, 132.

26 Shahar Citation1992, 103.

27 Parker Pearson Citation2003, 103; Goldberg Citation2008, 262.

28 Orme Citation1995, 52; Crawford Citation2009, 57.

29 Meade and Earickson Citation2005, 27; Roberts Citation2009, 311.

30 Dyer Citation2000, 134.

31 Ibid; Gilchrist Citation2012, 121.

32 Houlbrooke Citation1986, 139.

33 Shahar Citation1992, 140; Alexandre-Bidon Citation1999, 98.

34 Finucane Citation1997, 109.

35 Goldberg Citation2008, 261; Gordon Citation1991, 163.

36 Gilchrist Citation2012, 147; Hanawalt Citation1986, 157.

37 Alexandre-Bidon Citation1999, 75; Houlbrooke Citation1986, 153.

38 Heywood Citation2001, 35.

39 Houlbrooke Citation1986, 147; Lett Citation1999, 39.

40 Orme Citation2001, 83; Shahar Citation1992, 171.

41 Heywood Citation2001, 11; Hanawalt Citation1986, 183; Houlbrooke Citation1986, 150.

42 Hanawalt Citation1986, 159.

43 Hanawalt Citation1993, 117; Orme Citation1995, 61; Orme Citation2001, 178.

44 Gilchrist Citation2012, 92.

45 Orme Citation1995, 63.

46 Shahar Citation1992, 106; Alexandre-Bidon Citation1999, 122; Ives Citation2012, 24.

47 Orme Citation2001, 242; Shahar Citation1992, 175.

48 Shahar Citation1992, 242; Orme Citation2001, 307; Goldberg Citation2004, 262.

49 Hanawalt Citation1993, 142; Orme Citation2001, 68.

50 Shahar Citation1992, 191.

51 Houlbrooke Citation1986, 150.

52 Roberts and Cox Citation2003, 237.

53 McKintosh Citation1988, 219.

54 Goldberg Citation2004, 17.

55 Orme Citation2001, 334.

56 Orme Citation1994, 571; Goldberg Citation2004, 26.

57 Hanawalt Citation1986, 99.

58 Orme Citation2008, 112; Shahar Citation1992, 82.

59 Daniell Citation1997, 5; Rex Citation1993, 73.

60 Orme Citation1994, 563.

61 Houlbrooke Citation1986, 130; Shahar Citation1992, 45; Orme Citation1994, 563.

62 Orme Citation2001, 202.

63 Alexandre-Bidon Citation1999, 121; Lett Citation1999, 51.

64 Orme Citation1994, 578.

65 Orme Citation2001, 216; Mays Citation2009, 181.

66 Gilchrist and Sloane Citation2005, 6.

67 Ibid, 19; Ives Citation2012, 51.

68 Sweetinburgh Citation2004, 14; Gilchrist Citation2012, 190.

69 McKintosh Citation1988, 214.

70 Ibid, 209.

71 Orme Citation2001, 91; Dyer Citation2012, 41.

72 Dyer Citation2012, 46.

73 Hanawalt Citation1993, 33; McKintosh Citation1988, 214.

74 Orme Citation2001, 91; Dyer Citation2012, 44.

75 Dyer Citation2012, 77.

76 Ibid.

77 McKintosh Citation1988, 220; Rushton Citation2001, 9.

78 McKintosh Citation1988, 225.

79 Orme and Webster Citation1995, 53.

80 Horden Citation2007, 141; Rawcliffe Citation1984, 11.

81 Dyer Citation2012, 46; Orme and Webster Citation1995, 62; Rawcliffe Citation1999, 210; Horden Citation2007, 136.

82 Halcrow and Tayles Citation2008, 201; McKintosh Citation1988, 219.

83 Roberts and Cox Citation2003, 225.

84 Bolton Citation1980, 72.

85 Hoskins Citation1964, 28.

86 Clark Citation2007, 115; Bailey Citation1996, 9; Bolton Citation1980, 46; McKintosh Citation1988, 213.

87 Dyer Citation2002, 272; Braid Citation2009, 143.

88 Gilchrist Citation2012, 38; Dyer Citation2002, 280.

89 Bolton Citation1980, 345.

90 Bailey Citation1996, 2.

91 Hoskins Citation1964, 32.

92 McKintosh Citation1988, 225; Rex Citation1993, 161.

93 McKintosh Citation1988, 230.

94 Lewis Citation2007, 4.

95 Baxter Citation2005, 99; Halcrow and Tayles Citation2011, 337; Lewis Citation2000, 48; Ortner Citation2003, 112.

96 Howe and Phillips Citation1983, 34.

97 Meade and Earickson Citation2005, 3.

98 Lewis Citation2007, 12.

99 Ibid, 163.

100 Lewis Citation2007, 135.

101 Scheuer and Black Citation2004, 19.

102 Lewis Citation2007, 47.

103 Ibid; Saunders Citation2008, 118.

104 Lewis Citation2007, 28.

105 Stodder Citation2008, 83; Saunders Citation2008, 119; Bello et al Citation2006, 24; Manifold Citation2010, 59.

106 Brickley and Ives Citation2008, 13.

107 Mays Citation1998, 15.

108 Weiss-Krejci Citation2011, 68.

109 Jackes Citation2011, 107; Milner et al Citation2008, 563; Waldron Citation2007b, 28.

110 Wood et al Citation1992, 344.

111 Ibid; Ortner Citation2003, 42.

112 Waldron Citation2009, 253.

113 Jackes Citation2011, 138.

114 Gilchrist and Sloane, Citation2005.

115 Crossley Citation1990, 98.

116 Roberts and Cox Citation2003, 289.

117 Ives Citation2012, 13.

118 Gilchrist and Sloane Citation2005, 47.

119 Ibid, 62.

120 Orme Citation1994, 572.

121 Gilchrist and Sloane Citation2005, 60.

122 Greene Citation1992, 56.

123 Ortner Citation2003.

124 Goodman and Armelagos Citation1989, 239; Lewis Citation2007, 163.

125 Clark Citation2007, 115; Bailey Citation1996, 9; Bolton Citation1980, 46.

126 Hughes and Diaz Citation1994, 136; Goose et al Citation2012, 35; Rex Citation1993, 12.

127 Bolton Citation1980, 345; Orme and Webster Citation1995, 11; McIntosh 1988, 221.

128 Dyer Citation2012, 77.

129 Sweetinburgh Citation2004, 22; Orme and Webster Citation1995, 39.

130 McKintosh Citation1988, 225; Rex Citation1993, 161.

131 Goose et al Citation2012, 36, Hughes and Diaz Citation1994, 136.

132 Hoskins Citation1964, 32.

134 Houlbrooke Citation1986, 132.

135 Roberts and Cox Citation2003, 235.

136 Heywood Citation2001, 11.

137 Orme Citation1995, 63; Shahar Citation1992, 242; Orme Citation2001, 307; Goldberg Citation2004, 262; Alexandre-Bidon Citation1999, 80.

138 Kemp et al Citation2008, 1159.

139 Roberts and Manchester Citation2010, 238; Mays et al Citation2006, 370; Pettifor Citation2003, 65.

140 Halcrow and Tayles Citation2011, 343.

141 Roberts Citation2009, 316.

142 Wood et al Citation1992, 344; Walker Citation2008, 15.

143 Gilchrist and Sloane Citation2005, 63.

144 Saunders and Hoppa Citation1993, 128.

145 Jackes Citation2011, 138.

146 Hughes and Diaz Citation1994, 125; Hoskins Citation1964, 32.

147 Daniell Citation1997, 5.

148 Rushton Citation2001, 32.

149 McKintosh Citation1988, 225.

150 McKintosh Citation1988, 226; Dyer Citation2012, 75; Sweetinburgh Citation2004, 23; Orme and Webster Citation1995, 37.

151 Rex Citation1993, 99.

Log in via your institution

Log in to Taylor & Francis Online

PDF download + Online access

  • 48 hours access to article PDF & online version
  • Article PDF can be downloaded
  • Article PDF can be printed
USD 53.00 Add to cart

Issue Purchase

  • 30 days online access to complete issue
  • Article PDFs can be downloaded
  • Article PDFs can be printed
USD 311.00 Add to cart

* Local tax will be added as applicable

Related Research

People also read lists articles that other readers of this article have read.

Recommended articles lists articles that we recommend and is powered by our AI driven recommendation engine.

Cited by lists all citing articles based on Crossref citations.
Articles with the Crossref icon will open in a new tab.