Abstract
CHILDHOOD IS A TIME of rapid biological growth and development, and a stage of the life course during which bodies are particularly sensitive to social and environmental stressors. As a consequence, events which may impact upon a child’s care and treatment can become physically embodied within their bones and teeth. The skeletal remains of children have been neglected within archaeological discourse until recently, but they are, in fact, a particularly important demographic for understanding the impact of social processes on past population health. This research examines the prevalence of skeletal disease in children (≤16 years) in Britain (England, Wales and Scotland) between ad 1000 and 1700. Data for a total of 4,626 children from 95 sites were collated from published and unpublished skeletal reports and analysed for evidence of skeletal changes reflecting disease. A biocultural approach was adopted in which the evidence was interpreted in relation to ecological, social, economic and environmental conditions. It was observed that childhood levels of skeletal stress did increase significantly after 1540. It was noted that during the Reformation sociocultural and economic factors added to stressors in the ecology of the medieval child. The effects of the Reformation were found to be the greatest aggravator in the rise of morbidity prevalence over seven centuries. Differences in morbidity patterns between non-adult age categories indicated that a state of ‘childhood’ existed until at least eleven years of age, after which there appears to have been a gradual transition into adolescence and adulthood.
Résumé
L’enfance est une période de croissance biologique et de développement accélérés et une étape de la vie à laquelle les organismes sont particulièrement sensibles aux facteurs de stress social et environnemental. Par conséquent, les événements qui ont un impact sur les soins et le traitement d’un enfant peuvent s’incarner physiquement dans son squelette et sa dentition. Jusqu’à récemment, les squelettes d’enfant étaient négligés par le discours archéologique, alors qu’ils sont en réalité un indice démographique particulièrement important pour comprendre l’impact des processus sociaux sur la santé des populations antérieures. Cette étude examine la prévalence des maladies osseuses chez les enfants (≤16 ans) en Grande-Bretagne (Angleterre, pays de Galles et Écosse), entre 1000 et 1700. Les données de 4626 enfants provenant de 95 sites, rassemblées à partir de rapports osseux publiés ou non, ont été analysées pour déceler des indices de transformations osseuses indicatrices de pathologies. Une approche bioculturelle a été adoptée dans laquelle les indices ont été interprétés par rapport aux conditions écologiques, sociales, économiques et environnementales. On a observé que les niveaux de stress osseux chez les enfants augmentent significativement à partir de 1540. On a noté que, pendant la Réforme, des facteurs socioculturels et économiques sont venus s’ajouter aux facteurs de stress dans l’écologie de l’enfant médiéval. Les effets de la Réforme sont apparus comme le principal facteur aggravant dans la prévalence croissante de la morbidité sur une période de 700 ans. Les différences de morbidité entre les catégories d’âge non-adulte laissent entrevoir une phase “d’enfance” jusqu’à 11 ans au moins, l’âge à partir duquel une transition graduelle vers l’adolescence et l’âge adulte semble se produire.
Zusammenfassung
Die Kindheit ist eine Zeit von raschen biologischen Wachstums und schneller Entwicklung und ein Lebensstadium, in dem der Körper besonders empfindlich auf die Stressfaktoren aus Gesellschaft und Umwelt reagiert. Folglich können Ereignisse, die sich auf die Fürsorge für Kinder und ihre Behandlung auswirken, sich körperlich in deren Knochen und Zähnen niederschlagen. Die Skelettüberreste von Kindern wurden bis vor kurzem im archäologischen Diskurs eher vernachlässigt: Aber tatsächlich sind Kinder eine besonders wichtige Bevölkerungsgruppe, wenn man die Auswirkungen gesellschaftlicher Prozesse auf die Gesundheit vergangener Populationen verstehen will. Die vorliegende Forschungsarbeit untersucht die Häufigkeit von Skeletterkrankungen bei Kindern (≤16 Jahre) in Großbritannien (England, Wales und Schottland) zwischen ad 1000 und 1700. Aus veröffentlichten und unveröffentlichten Berichten über Skelettuntersuchungen wurden Daten für insgesamt 4626 Kinder von 95 Fundstätten zusammengeführt und auf Belege für krankheitsbedingte Skelettveränderungen untersucht. Es wurde ein biokultureller Ansatz verwendet, in dem das Beweismaterial mit Bezug auf ökologische, soziale, ökonomische und Umweltbedingungen interpretiert wurden. Es wurde beobachtet, dass nach 1540 die Auswirkungen von Stress auf das Skelett von Kindern signifikant zunahm. Es wurde angemerkt, dass während der Reformation soziokulturelle und wirtschaftliche Faktoren in der Ökologie des mittelalterlichen Kindes noch zusätzliche Stressfaktoren hinzufügten. Es wurde festgestellt, dass die Auswirkungen der Reformation sieben Jahrhunderte lang die größte Verschlimmerung in der Häufigkeit von Erkrankungen erzeugten. Unterschiede in Erkrankungsmustern zwischen verschiedenen nicht erwachsenen Altersgruppen deuten darauf hin, dass ein Zustand der “Kindheit” bis mindestens zum Alter von elf Jahren existierte und dass es danach einen allmählichen Übergang in die Jugend und ins Erwachsensein gegeben hat.
Riassunto
L’infanzia è un periodo di rapida crescita e sviluppo biologico, ed è uno stadio nel corso della vita durante il quale il corpo è particolarmente sensibile agli agenti stressanti sociali e ambientali. Per questo motivo gli eventi che hanno avuto un impatto nella cura e nel trattamento dei bambini possono restare fisicamente impressi nelle ossa e nei denti. Nelle dissertazioni archeologiche i resti ossei dei bambini sono stati trascurati fino a non molto tempo fa, mentre, di fatto, sono un elemento demografico particolarmente importante per capire l’impatto dei processi sociali sulla salute delle popolazioni passate. Questa ricerca esamina la prevalenza di malattie dello scheletro in bambini (≤16 anni) in Gran Bretagna (Inghilterra, Galles e Scozia) tra il 1000 e il 1700 dC. I dati per il totale di 4626 bambini di 95 siti diversi, ricavati da relazioni sugli scheletri pubblicate e non pubblicate, sono stati collazionati e analizzati per verificare i mutamenti dello scheletro che riflettessero malattie. Si è adottato un approccio bioculturale secondo il quale l’evidenza è stata interpretata in rapporto alle condizioni ecologiche, sociali, economiche e ambientali. Si è osservato che i livelli di stress dello scheletro aumentarono in modo rilevante dopo il 1540. Si è notato che durante la Riforma fattori socioculturali ed economici si aggiunsero agli agenti stressanti nell’ecologia dei bambini medievali. Si è scoperto che gli effetti della Riforma sono stati il maggiore fattore aggravante nell’aumento della prevalenza della morbidità sull’arco di sette secoli. Le differenze nell’andamento della morbidità tra le categorie di individui non adulti indicavano che uno stato di ‘infanzia’ permaneva almeno fino agli undici anni di età, dopo la quale sembra esserci stata una transizione graduale verso l’adolescenza e l’età adulta.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks are due to Sarah Bultz at Cambridgeshire County Council Archaeology Field Unit, Kirsty Stonell-Walker at English Heritage, Christopher Guy at Worcester Cathedral, Dr Anwen Caffell and Malin Holst at York Osteology, Dr Louise Loe and Helen Webb at Oxford Archaeology and Pia Nystrom at Sheffield University for their extensive help acquiring reports and instruction. Thanks also to Professor Roberta Gilchrist for her help finding elusive site reports, as well as for the creation of the Requiem database which was essential to this work. Thanks to Dr Jonathan Waterlow and Felicia Fricke for their input. Final thanks to Alice Rose for her frequent insights, proofing reading, GIS tutorials and valued friendship.
Notes
1 Oxford Archaeology, Janus House, Osney Mead, Oxford, Oxfordshire OX2 0ES. [email protected]
2 Durham University, Department of Archaeology, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, UK. [email protected]
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