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Abstract
When Japan surrendered in August 1945, both the GMD and the CCP initially recognized Koreans as foreigners. However, with the change of CCP’s strategy toward Northeast China from sole occupation to guerrilla warfare, the CCP began to encourage local Koreans to recognize themselves as an ethnic minority to help win the civil war. The CCP successively reduced the criteria for obtaining Chinese citizenship, completing the legalization of the ethnic Korean ethnic minority in China in 1960 with no smooth emotional transition. However, after the generational shift from the first and second to third and fourth immigrated generation and termination of exchanges between China and North Korea during the Cultural Revolution, the Korean ethnic minority became a legal and emotional reality in China. North Korea, considering its own security and safety, proactively assisted the CCP in China's civil war, providing ammunitions and persuading ethnic Koreans to participate in Chinese (Communist) Revolution. The interdependence between North Korea and the CCP during the Chinese civil war led to the creation of the ethnic Koreans in the People?s Republic of China.
Notes
1 Manzhouguo News Service Agency, Manzhouguo kaituo nianjian (Manzhouguo’s Reclamation Yearbook) (unpublished, 1941), 276.
2 North Manchuria Investigation Institute of Harbin Railways Bureau, Beiman jingjiziliao di ershisi hao: Beiman Chaoxianren de liuru ji dingju qingkuang (Economic Materials of North Manchuria: On the Influx and Settlement of Koreans in North Manchuria), (unpublished, 1936), 25; Sun Chunri, Zhongguo Chaoxianzu yiminshi (A History of Migration of the Koreans in China) (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 2009), 444.
3 Heilongjiang Archive and History Institute of Heilongjiang Academy of Social Sciences ed., “Chaoxianren yimin duice dagang” (The Fundamental Principles of Korean Immigration), Riben xiang Zhongguo dongbei yimin (Japanese Immigration to Northeast China) (Harbin; Harbin Hulan Yinshuachang, 1989), 405–12; Takasaki Sōji, Chūgoku Chousenzoku: rekishi, seikatsu, bunka, minzoku kyōiku (Korean Minority in China: History, Life, Culture, Ethnic Education) (Tokyo: Aksahi Shoten, 1996), 16–17.
4 Heilongjiang Archive and History Institute of Heilongjiang Academy of Social Sciences ed., Riben xiang Zhongguo dongbei yimin, 590.
5 Sun Chunri, Zhongguo Chaoxianzu yiminshi, 442; North Manchuria Investigation Institute of Harbin Railways Bureau, Beiman jingjiziliao di ershisi hao: Beiman Chaoxianren de liuru ji dingju qingkuang, 4–5.
6 Takasaki Sōji, Chūgoku Chousenzoku: rekishi, seikatsu, bunka, minzoku kyōiku, 16–17.
7 Northeast Investigation Committee of the Central Design Bureau of the Nationalist Government, “Rihan yimin” (On the Immigration of Japanese and Korean), Dongbei fuyuan jiahua (Recovery Plan of Northeast China) (unpublished manuscript), 2: August 1945, 170–78.
8 Central Archives of China, Zhonggong zhongyang wenjian xuanji (Selected Documents of the CCP Central Committee), (Beijing: Zhongyang dangxiao chubanshe, 1991), 15: 223.
9 “Situation Report of the Political Department of the Soviet Army in China,” September 13, 1945, IIAMO (Central Archive of the Russian Ministry of Defense), Fond (F). 32, Opis (Op). 11306, Delo (D). 692, Listy (L), 35–36.
10 Kim Chunseon, “Gwangbog hu junggug dongbug jiyeog hanindeul ui jeongchag gwa gugnae gwihwan” (Settlement and Repatriation of Koreans in Northeast China after the Liberation), Hangug geunhyeondaesa yeongu (Journal of Korean Modern and Contemporary History), 28 (Spring 2004): 200; Joseon ilbo (Korean), December 4, 1946, 1; “Jaemanju dongpo man-ocheonmyeong pagyeondan ganseon-eulo gwigug” (Repatriation of 15,000 Brothers in Manchuria by Delegation Ship), Joseon ilbo, January 16, 1947, 2; “Jaeman dongpo guhoseon, chilchalo Incheon chulhang” (Departure of the 7th Relief Ship for Manchuria Brothers from Incheon), Joseon ilbo, July 22, 1948, 2.
11 In September 1945, about 80,000 Koreans were living in North, Central, and East China: 35,000 in Beijing, 15,000 in Tianjin, 5,600 in Shanghai, 10,000 in Taiyuan, and 3,000 in Xuzhou respectively. Kim Jeongin, “Imjeong juhwadaepyodan ui jojig mich hwaldong” (Organization and its Activity of the Representative of Korean Provisional Government in China), Yeogsa wa hyeonsil (History and Actuality), 24 (June 1997): 113.
12 Jang Seokheung, “Haebang jighu sanghae jiyeog ui hanin sahoe wa gwihan” (Korean Society of Shanghai Immediately after Liberation and its Repatriation) Hangug geunhyeondaesa yeongu (Journal of Korea Modern and Contemporary History), 28 (Spring 2004): 280.
13 “Report on the works of the Soviet Administration in North Korea for three years (August 1945–November 1948: Politics),” December 9, 1948, AVPRF (Archive of Foreign Policy of the Russian Federation), F. 0480, Op. 4, Pap., 14, D. 46, L., 224–55.
14 Headquarters of the Northeast Military District Command, PLA, Dongbei sannian jiefang zhanzheng junshi ziliao (The Military Documents of the Three-year Northeast Liberation War ) (unpublished, 1949), 76–77; Gil Jaejun and Li Sangjeon, Junggug dongbug haebang jeonjaeng eul dowa (To Help the Liberation War of Northeast China) (Pyongyang: Gwahag Baeggwa Sajeon Chulpansa, 2008), 301–05; Telegram from Shtykov to Vyshinsky, May 15, 1949, APRF(Archive of the President of the Russian Federation), F. 3, Op. 65, D. 9, L., 54.
15 An Longzhen, Yanbian Chaoxian zizhizhou zhouzhi (Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture Gazetteer) (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1996), 276.
16 Xinhua News Agency ed., Neibu cankao (Internal Reference), December 31, 1957, no. 2393 , pp. 9–10; Zhu Dehai Yisheng Editing Team, Zhu Dehai yisheng (The Life of Zhu Dehai) (Beijing: minzu chubanshe, 1987), 134–36.
17 Zhou Baozhong, “Yanbian Chaoxian minzu wenti” (On Korean Nationals in Yanbian), December 1946, in the Archive of the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture ed., Zhonggong Yanbian Jidong Jidun diwei Yanbian zhuanshu zhongyao wenjian huibian (Collection of Important Documents from the Yanbian Prefectural Commissioner’s Office, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) Yanbian Jidong and Jidun Prefecture), no. 1 (unpublished, 1985), 356, 384.
18 “Dongbei shoufuqu quanqiaomin daibiaohui baogao gedi hanqiao xiankuang yaoji” (Korean’s Current Situation Reported at the Representative Meeting of the Recovered Areas in Northeast China), stored at the Ethnic Institute of Yanbian University.
19 Author’s interview with Jin Dourong, he had served in KVA and worked as interpreter at the representative office in Pyongyang in 1946–48.
20 Central Archives of China, Zhonggong zhongyang wenjian xuanji, 223.
21 Jiefang ribao (Liberation Daily), August 14, 1945.
22 Jiefang ribao, August 15, 1945; Jinchaji ribao (Jin-Cha-Ji Daily), August 17, 1945.
23 Choe Gang, Chosun Uiyongjunsa (History of the Korean Volunteer Army) (Yanbian: Yanbian renmin chubanshe, 2005), 183; Kim Donggil, “Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun zhong de Chaoxianshi hui Chaoxian wenti de tansuo” (Some New Insights into the Return of the Ethnic Korean Divisions in the PLA to North Korea), Lishi yanjiu (Historical Research), 6 (December 2006), 103–14; Kim Donggil, “Prelude to War? The Repatriation of Koreans from the Chinese PLA, 1949–1950,” Cold War History, 12, no. 2 (May 2012): 227–44.
24 Headquarters of the Northeast Military District Command, PLA, Dongbei sannian jiefang zhanzheng junshi ziliao, 76; Choe Gang, Chosun Uiyongjunsa, 287–89; Han Cheong, Manjujiyeogui Chosundongnib Undongsa: Han Cheong Hoegorok (History of Korean independence movement in Manchuria: Han Cheong’s memoirs) (Manuscripts), 16: 1940–50.
25 CCP Central Documentary Research Department, Chen Yun wenji (Collected Works of Chen Yun) (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2005), vol. 1, 447.
26 The Soviet command in Shenyang notified the KVA Vanguard Column that they needed to leave Shenyang for the surrounding rural areas—80 km of Railways outside of Changchun. Kim Donggil, “1945 nian 10 yue Chaoxian yiyongjun xianqian zongdui ruchao jiqi shoucuo,” 256–67.
27 The dialogue between Han Cheong and the Soviet Commander contradicts the currently widespread assumption that the KVA Vanguard Column entered North Korea in advance with the purpose of fulfilling a pioneering mission, well before the formal entry of the Korea Volunteer Army. Han Cheong, Manjujiyeogui Chosundongnib Undongsa: Han Cheong Hoegorok, 16: 1959–61; Kim Changsun, Bughan sibonyeon sa (Fifteen Years’ History of North Korea) (Seoul: Jimungag, 1961), 62–63; Special Interview Team of Joong Ang Ilbo, Birok: Chosun minjujuui inmin gonghwaguk (Secret Record: Democratic People Republic of Korea) (Seoul: Joongang Ilbo Chulpansa, 1993), 1: 148–54.
28 Han Cheong, Manjujiyeogui Chosundongnib Undongsa: Han Cheong Hoegorok, 16: 1961–65.
29 Han Cheong believed that the request of Kim Il-sung group was essentially an attempt to probe into the KVA’s political and ideological disposition. Han Cheong, Manjujiyeogui Chosundongnib Undongsa: Han Cheong Hoegorok, 16: 1966–67.
30 Han Cheong, Manjujiyeogui Chosundongnib Undongsa: Han Cheong Hoegorok, 16: 1966–67.
31 CCP Central Documentary Research Department ed., Liu Shaoqi zhuan (A Biography of Liu Shaoqi) (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2008), vol. 1, 487.
32 CCP Central Documentary Research Department ed., Liu Shaoqi zhuan, 488; CCP Central Documentary Research Department, Liu Shaoqi nianpu(A Chronicle of Liu Shaoqi) (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 1996), vol. 1, 507–08.
33 The KVA headquarters decided to establish the 1st detachment of KVA in South Manchuria comprising 1,500 main KVA soldiers, where no Korean military unit existed. The 3rd detachment of the KVA was established in North Manchuria in where Korean military unit already organized under the command of Li Sangjo. Meanwhile, the KVA headquarters sent Pak Ilwu to East Manchuria to establish the 5th detachment of the KVA. Choe Gang, Chosun Uiyongjunsa, 214; Cui Haishi, Chaoxian yiyongjun di yizhidui si (A History of 1st Detachment of KVA) (Shenyang: Liaoning minzu chubanshe, 1992), 26; Li Yiyi and Xu Mingxun, Chaoxian yiyongjun sanzhidui (The 3rd Detachment of KVA) (Harbin: Heilongjiang Chaoxian minzu chubanshe, 1987), 6.
34 Shi Yuanhua ed., Zhongguo gongchandang zhiyuan chaoxian duliyundong jishi (1921–1945), 394.
35 Special Interview Team of Joong Ang Ilbo, Birok: Chosun minjujuui inmin gonghwaguk, 1: 155.
36 Shi Yuanhua, “Lun erzhanhou Zhongguo guomin zhengfu de Chaoxian bandao zhengce” (On the Republic of China’s Policy toward Korean Peninsula after the Second World War), Fudan xuebao (Fudan Journal), no. 3 (June 2006), 114.
37 Kim Gu, “Go gugnae oe dongpo seo” (Letter to Home and Abroad Countrymen), in Kim Eunseong ed., Hanguo dulidang sanjun zhidu zhi quanshi (Analysis on the Three Equality System of the Korean Independence Party) (Nanjing: Wen quan chubanshe, 1947), 120–21; Shi Yuanhua, Hanguo duli yundong yu Zhongguo (Korean Independence Movement and China) (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 1995), 567.
38 Han Sijun, “Daehanmingug imsijeongbu ui hwanguk” (The Return of the Korean Provisional Government), Hangug geunhyeondaesa yeongu (Journal of Korea Modern and Contemporary History), 25 (Fall 2003): 59–82; Shi Yuanhua, “Lun guiguo qianhou de dahanminguo linshizhengfu ji zhuhua jigou” (Discussions on the Korean Provisional Government and its Apparatus in China), Minguo Dang’an (Republican Archives), 3 (Fall 2004): 122–23.
39 Kim Donggil, “1945 nyeon–1950 nyeon Jungmi gwangye wa Junggug sangsillon bipan” (Sino-U.S. Relations during 1945 to 1950 and an Analysis on “Lost China”), Dongyang sahag yeongu (Journal of Asian Historical Studies), 111 (June 2010): 274; Kim Donggil, “The Crucial Issues of the Early Cold War: Stalin and the Chinese Civil War,” Cold War History, 10, no. 2 (May 2010): 185–202; Zhang Shengfa, “Cong xiaoji lengmo dao jiji zhichi: lun 1945–1949 nian sidalin dui zhongguo geming de lichang he taidu” (On the Attitude of Stalin towards Chinese Revolution in 1945–1949), Shijie Lishi (World History), 6 (December 1999): 19–31.
40 Zhou Baozhong, “Yanbian Chaoxian minzu wenti,” 327.
41 United Front Department of CCP Central Committee, Minzu wenti wenxianhuibian (1921·7–1949·9) (Collection of Documents on the Issue of Nationality (1921·7–1949·9)) (Beijing: Zhonggong Zhongyang dangxiao chubanshe, 1991), 978.
42 CCP Central Documentary Research Department, Chen Yun wenji, 1: 485; Tong Dong, Zhongguo dongbeishi (A History of Northeast China) (Jilin; Jilin wenhua chubanshe, 1998), 6: 758.
43 When Japan surrendered, farmers made up 93·3% of all Koreans in Northeast China. Among the 590,000 Koreans in Yanbian, 550,000 were allocated land. Literature and History Documents from the Committee of the Political Consultative Congress of the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture, Jiefang chuqi de Yanbian (Yanbian in the Early Liberation) (Shenyang: Liaoning minzu chubanshe, 1999), 103–05.
44 After the land was allocated, Koreans in Northeast China felt great joy and happiness, with a mission to guard their own land. These sentiments were often reflected novels or poetry at that time. Kim Taehui, “Pal il o” (August 15), Dongbuk joseon inmin bo (Northeast Korean People’s Daily), August 15, 1948; O Taesun, “Gaeul” (Autumn), Dongbuk joseon inmin bo, September 23, 1949; Seo Heon, “Cheongsong du guru” (Two Green Pines), Yanbian Branch of the Chinese Literati Association ed., Changjak seonjip (Collection of Creative Works) (Yanji: Yanbian Gyoyuk Chulpansa, 1956), 56; Chae Taekyong, “Nae ttange nae goksik—sinse gochin XXui haro” (My Grain in My Land—A Day of Blessed XX with Good Fortune), Yeonbyeon munhwa (Yanbian Culture), 1, no. 3 (1948): 31–32.
45 Dong Kunyi, “Xin nian xianci” (New Year Message), January 1, 1946, in Zhonggong Yanbian Jidong Jidun diwei Yanbian zhuanshu zhongyao wenjian huibian, no. 1, 8; the Republican Chinese government had revised its nationality act in 1929, allowing Koreans in Northeast China to obtain Chinese citizenship legally. However, when Japan surrendered on August 1945, only 10% of Northeast Koreans took up the Chinese citizenship. Sun Chunri and Shen Ying shu, “Lun woguo Chaoxianzu -jiaru Zhonghuaminzu dajiating de lishi guocheng” (On the Historical Process of How Koreans in China Joined the Chinese Big Family), Dongjiang xuekan (Journal of Eastern Frontier), no. 4 (Winter 2006): 54–60.
46 Choe Gang, Chosun Uiyongjunsa, 207–08.
47 History Research Institute of Yanbian, Yanbian lishi yanjiu (Yanbian’s Historical Research) (unpublished, 1988), 78; Choe Gang, Chosun Uiyongjunsa, 207.
48 Accordingly, the 1st Detachment of the KVA was renamed Li Hongguang Detachment, the 3rd Detachment and 5th Detachment of the KVA was regrouped as Independent Regiment of Songjiang Military District and the 1st and 2nd regiment of Northeast Democratic Allied Forces respectively. They received command from and were supervised by the headquarters of the Northeast Democratic Allied Forces. Headquarters of the Northeast Military District Command, PLA, Dongbei sannian jiefang zhanzheng junshi ziliao, 76–77; Party History Department of the CCP Yanbian Prefecture, Zhongguo gongchandang Yanbian lishi dashiji (A Historical Chronology of the CCP Yanbian Committee), (Beijing: Minzu chubanshe, 2002), 235; Kim Donggil, “Prelude to War? The Repatriation of Koreans from the Chinese PLA, 1949–1950,” 227–44.
49 South, North Manchuria, and Jilin Working Committee of the Korean Independence Federation (KIF) were renamed the South Manchuria Working committee, North Manchuria Working Committee, and Jilin Working Committee of Northeast Korean People’s Democratic Federation respectively. Choe Gang, Chosun Uiyongjunsa, 208–09.
50 Ding Xuesong, et al., “Huiyi dongbei jiefang zhanzheng qijian dongbei zhu chaoxian banshichu” (Memoir of the Northeast Bureau’s Korea representative during the Chinese Civil War), Zhonggong dangshi ziliao (CCP History Material), 17 (Spring 1986): 197–210; Gil Jaejun and Li Sangjeon, Junggug dongbug haebang jeonjaeng eul dowa, 91.
51 Kim Il-sung stressed that “From the perspective of our revolution, we could not allow Northeast China to fall in the hands of Jiang Jieshi.” Kim Il-sung, Kim Il-sung hoegorok: segiwa deobureo (Il-sung’s Memoir: With the Century [posthumous edition]) (Pyongyang: Joseon Nodongdang Chulpansa, 1998), 8: 262.
52 Gil Jaejun and Li Sangjeon, Junggug dongbug haebang jeonjaeng eul dowa, 96–102.
53 This military unit was reorganized as an independent 4th division of the Northeast Democratic Allied Forces and eventually regrouped as the 166th division of the PLA. On July 25, 1949, the 166th division arrived in North Korea from Shenyang, finally rechristening the 6th division of the Korean People’s Army. Gil Jaejun and Li Sangjeon, Junggug dongbug haebang jeonjaeng eul dowa, 59; Kim Jungsaeng, Chosun uiyonggun milipbuk gwa yug-i-o jenjaeng (KVA’s secret entrance to North Korea and the Korean War) (Seoul: Myungji Press, 2000), 98.
54 After the breakout of Chinese Civil war, Kim Il-sung issued a statement “on the treatment of refuges and countrymen abroad” on August 23, 1946 in order to offer medical treatments for soldiers and refugees pouring into North Korea from southern Manchuria. Gil Jaejun and Li Sangjeon, Junggug dongbug haebang jeonjaeng eul dowa, 315; Party History Department of the CCP Henan Province committee, Jinian Zhulizhi wenji (The Memorial Collected Works of Zhu Lizhi) (Beijing: Zhonggong dangshi chubanshe, 2007), 239–41, 242–44.
55 Gil Jaejun and Li Sangjeon, Junggug dongbug haebang jeonjaeng eul dowa, 103–12; Party History Department of the CCP Henan Province committee, Jinian Zhulizhi wenji, 521–29.
56 CCP Central Documentary Research Department, Chen Yun wenji, 1: 554–55, 625–26.
57 “Summary Report on the Work of the Soviet Administration in North Korea for Three Years (August 1945–November 1948: Politics),” December 9, 1948, AVPRF, F. 0480, Op. 4, Pap. 14, D. 46., L. 224–50.
58 The CCP’s Korean leaders analyzed the reason why Koreans in Northeast China regarded Korea as their motherland, concluding that “since Koreans came to China, they had been subject to extreme exploitation and oppression by the Japanese and local Chinese warlords for a long period of time. Although many of them have lived in China for three generations, they still think that Korea is their motherland.” Yanbian diwei, “Guanyu Yanbian minzu wenti”(On Nationality Issues in Yanbian), August 15, 1948, in Zhonggong Yanbian Jidong Jidun diwei Yanbian zhuanshu zhongyao wenxian huibian (Collection of Important Documents of the CCP Yanbian Prefecture Jidong and Jidun Committee), no. 1, 383–86.
59 Zhu Dehai Yisheng Editing Team, Zhu Dehai yisheng, 134.
60 Gil Jaejun and Li Sangjeon, Junggug dongbug haebang jeonjaeng eul dowa, 217.
61 Under Kim Il-sung’s orders, Lim Chuchu served as an administrative commissioner and a deputy secretary of the CCP Yanbian Committee. He appealed to Koreans in Yanbian, saying that “united strongly with the Chinese brothers, the Korean people have to overcome all difficulties and actively support the war of Northeast liberation.” Gil Jaejun and Li Sangjeon, Junggug dongbug haebang jeonjaeng eul dowa, 220–25.
62 “The land reform, conducted by government with enthusiastic support of people, has been completed, allocating nearly one million hectares of land to farmers.” Renmin ribao, June 4, 1946, 1.
63 CCP Central Documentary Research Department, Chen Yun nianpu (A Chronicle of Chen Yun) (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2000), vol. 1, 473.
64 “Summary Report on the Works of the Soviet Administration in North Korea for Three Years (August 1945–November 1948: Politics),” December 9, 1948, AVPRF, F. 0480, Op. 4, Pap. 14, D. 46, L. 255–56.
65 Kim Donggil, “Zhongguo renminjiefangjun zhongde Chaoxianshi hui Chaoxian wenti de tansuo,” 103–14; Telegram from Shtykov to Molotov, January 27, 1949, APRF, F. 3, Op. 65, D. 3, L. 3; Telegram from Shtykov to Molotov, February 3, 1949, APRF, F. 3, Op. 65, D. 3, L. 6; Telegram from Shtykov to Vyshinsky, April 20, 1949, APRF, F. 3, Op. 65, D. 839, L. 13–14; Telegram from Shtykov to Vyshinsky, 15 May 1949, APRF, F. 3, Op. 65, D. 9, L. 54.
66 Headquarters of the Northeast Military District Command, PLA, Dongbei sannian jiefang zhanzheng junshi ziliao, 76–77; Telegram from Nie Rongzhen to Mao Zedong Regarding the Question of Sending Home Ethnic Korean Officers and Soldiers Stationed in the Huazhong (Central China) Military District China, December 29, 1949, APRF, F. 45, Op. 1, D. 334, L. 8–9; CCP Central Documentary Research Department, “Telegram: Central Military Commission agreed to repatriate the ethnic Korean officers and soldiers in the Fourth Field Army to North Korea,” January 22, 1950, Jianguo yilai Liu Shaoqi wengao (Liu Shaoqi’s Manuscripts Since the Founding of the P.R.C.), (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2005), vol. 1, 319–21; Kim Donggil, “Prelude to War? The Repatriation of Koreans from the Chinese PLA, 1949–1950,” 227–44.
67 On June 20, 1950, ethnic Korean soldiers belonging to the 47th Army in Shenyang returned to Pyongyang in North Korea via Sinuju. Gil Jaejun and Li Sangjeon, Junggug dongbug haebang jeonjaeng eul dowa, 304.
68 Zhu Dehai Yisheng Editing Team, Zhu Dehai yisheng, 135.
69 Liu Junxiu,“Guanyu minzu zhengce zhong de jige wenti”(Several Issues in Nationality Policy) (manuscript), December 9, 1948, in Zhonggong Yanbian Jidong Jidun diwei Yanbian zhuanshu zhongyao wenxian huibian, no. 1, 392.
70 CCP Central Documentary Research Department and Central Archive of China ed., Jianguo yilai Zhou Enlai wengao (Zhou Enlai’s Manuscripts since the Founding of the PRC), vol. 3 (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2008), 345, 381; “Report from Northeast Foreign Affairs to Foreign Ministry,” September 19, 1950, CFMA (Chinese Foreign Ministry Archives), no. 118-00080-06, 67–68.
71 Shen Zhihua and Li Danhui eds., “Summarized Report of Soviet Embassy to DPRK (March 1954),” Eguo dang’an yuanwen fuyin huibian: Chaoxian zhanzheng (The Collection of Russian Documents: The Korean War) (unpublished manuscript), 16: 2134–53.
72 After the outbreak of the Korean War, about 11,000 North Koreans poured into Yanbian. Although the P.R.C. government assigned work to them, the nationality issue could still not be solved. “Report from Northeast Administrative Committee to Central Government,” March 23, 1953, CFMA, no. 118-00175-01, 1–3; “Telegram from Stalin to Zhou Enali and Mao Zedong,” October 11, 1950, RGASPI (Russian State Archive of Socio-Political History), F. 558, Op. 11, D. 334, L. 134–35; An Longzhen, Yanbian Chaoxianzu zizhizhou zhouzhi (Yanbian Ethnic Korean Autonomous Prefecture Gazetteer) (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1996), 503.
73 Han Zheshi ed., Changbai Chaoxianzu zizhixuan zhi (Changbai Ethnic Korean County Gazetteer) (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju,1993), 287.
74 “CCP Central Committee Instruction,” August 17, 1953, CFMA, no. 108-00018-02, 13–15.
75 “Interior Ministry Instruction on Settling Nationality Issue,” April 14, 1954, CFMA, no. 118-00506-02, 3–16.
76 Zhu Dehai Yisheng Editing Team, Zhu Dehai yisheng, 181.
77 Neibu cankao, June 18, 1957, no. 2233, 34–35; Neibu cankao, no. 2393, 9–10.
78 Neibu cankao, April 24, 1959, no. 2758, 15–16.
79 “On Illegal Migration of the Ethnic Koreans in China to North Korea,” CFMA, no. 118-01026-03, 131; “On the Immigration Situation of the Ethnic Koreans: Pei Rende report on Jinlin Province and three other places,” CFMA, no. 118-01026-06, 108; “On the Illegal Crossing Border and Visiting North Korea of the Ethnic Korean Chinese,” CFMA, no. 118-01026-07, 125–28.