The Intelligent, Thoughtful Personality: Librarianship as a Process of Identity Formation

Abstract

Current sociological theory defines ‘profession’ as a process of identity formation rather than the acquisition of traits or the wielding of power or expertise. Professions are sites of identity formation, where professionals come to terms with their class, racial, ethnic, or gender identities in the context of their professional institution. This paper examines the role that the women’s racial, ethnic, and gender identities played in the formation of the profession of librarianship in Utah, how these librarians understood those identities in the context of their profession, and how their personal identity influenced their professional identity.

Keywords:

• Profession
• librarianship
• female
• identity

Notes

1 Dee Garrison, Apostles of Culture: The Public Librarian and American Society, 1876–1920 (New York: Free Press, 1979).

2 Ibid., p. 188.

3 Andrew Abbott, ‘Jurisdictional Conflicts: A New Approach to the Development of the Legal Professions’, American Bar Foundation Research Journal, 11.2 (Spring 1986), 188; Andrew Abbott, ‘The Information Professions’, in The System of Professions: An Essay on the Division of Expert Labor (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), pp. 215–46; Wayne A. Wiegand, ‘Perspectives on Library Education in the Context of Recently Published Literature on the History of Professions’, Journal of Education for Library and Information Science, 26.4 (Spring 1986), 267–80; Wayne A. Wiegand, ‘The Development of Librarianship in the United States’, Libraries and Culture, 24.1 (Winter 1989), 99–109.

4 Abbott, ‘Information Professions’, p. 217.

5 Barbara E. Brand, ‘Librarianship and Other Female-Intensive Professions’, Journal of Library History, 18 (1983), 361–406; Roma Harris, Librarianship: The Erosion of a Woman’s Profession (Norwood: Ablex Publishing, 1992); Paula D. Watson, ‘Carnegie Ladies, Lady Carnegies: Women and the Building of Libraries’, Libraries & Culture, 31.1 (Winter 1996), 159–96; Paula D. Watson, ‘Founding Mothers: The Contribution of Women’s Organizations to Public Library Development in the United States’, Library Quarterly, 64.3 (July 1994), 233–69; Laurel A. Grotzinger, ‘Invisible, Indestructible Network: Women and the Diffusion of Librarianship at the Turn of the Century’, in Women’s Work: Vision and Change in Librarianship: Papers in Honor of the Centennial of the University of Illinois Graduate School of Library and Information Science, ed. by Laurel A. Grotzinger, James V. Carmichael, and Mary Niles Maack, Occasional Papers (Urbana: Graduate School of Library and Information Science, University of Illinois, 1994), pp. 7–26; Joanne Passet, Cultural Crusaders: Women Librarians in the American West, 1900–1917 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1994); Denise Sallee, ‘Reconceptualizing Women’s History: Anne Hadden and the California County Library System’, Libraries and Culture, 27.4 (Fall 1992), 351–77; Debra Gold Hansen, Karen F. Gracy, and Sheri D. Irvin. ‘At the Pleasure of the Board: Women Librarians and the Los Angeles Public Library, 1880–1905’, Libraries & Culture, 34.4 (Fall 1999), 311–46; Reclaiming the American Library Past: Writing the Women In, ed. by Suzanne Hildenbrand (Norwood: Ablex Publishing, 1996).

6 Anne Witz, ‘Patriarchy and Professions: The Gendered Politics of Occupational Closure’, Sociology, 24.4 (November 1990), 675.

7 Julia Adams, Elisabeth S. Clemens, and Ann Shola Orloff, ‘Introduction: Social Theory, Modernity, and the Three Waves of Historical Sociology’, in Remaking Modernity: Politics, History and Sociology, ed. by Julia Adams, Elisabeth S. Clemens, and Ann Shola Orloff (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005), p. 53.

8 Ming-Cheng M. Lo, ‘The Professions: Prodigal Daughters of Modernity’, in Remaking Modernity, ed. by Adams et al., p. 382.

9 Ibid., p. 385.

10 Witz, pp. 666–69.

11 Camilla Stivers, Gender Images in Public Administration: Legitimacy and the Administrative State (London: Sage, 1993), p. 52.

12 Harris, Librarianship, p. 164.

13 Mary Niles Maack, ‘Women as Visionaries, Mentors, and Agents of Change’, in Women’s Work, ed. by Grotzinger et al., p. 126.

14 Mary Niles Maack, ‘Toward a New Model of the Information Professions: Embracing Empowerment’, Journal of Education for Library and Information Science, 38.4 (Fall 1997), 291.

15 Lo, p. 390.

16 As quoted in ibid., p. 391.

17 Ibid., p. 392.

18 Suzanne Hildenbrand, ‘Revision Versus Reality: Women in the History of the Public Library Movement, 1876–1920’, in The Status of Women in Librarianship: Historical, Sociological, and Economic Issues, ed. by Kathleen M. Heim (New York: Neal-Schuman, 1983), pp. 7–27; Suzanne Hildenbrand, ‘Some Theoretical Considerations on Women in Library History’, Journal of Library History, 18 (1983), 382–90; Suzanne Hildenbrand, ‘A Historical Perspective on Gender Issues in American Librarianship’, Canadian Journal of Information Science/Revue canadienne des sciences de l’information, 17.3 (September 1992), 18–28; Suzanne Hildenbrand, ‘Women in Library History: From the Politics of Library History to the History of Library Politics’, in Reclaiming the American Library Past, ed. by Hildenbrand (Norwood: Ablex Publishing, 1996), pp. 1–23; Suzanne Hildenbrand, ‘Library Feminism and Library Women’s History: Activism and Scholarship, Equity and Culture’, Libraries & Culture, 35.1 (2000), 51–65; Niles Maack, ‘Toward a New Model of the Information Professions’; Laurel A. Grotzinger, ‘Biographical Research: Recognition Denied’, Journal of Library History, 18 (1983), 372–81; Laurel A. Grotzinger, ‘Biographical Research on Women Librarians: Its Paucity, Perils, and Pleasures’, in The Status of Women in Librarianship, ed. by Heim, pp. 139–90.

19 Wayne A. Wiegand, ‘American Library History Literature, 1947–1997: Theoretical Perspectives?’, Libraries & Culture, 35.1 (2000), 4–34.

20 Jacalyn Eddy, ‘“We Have Become Too Tender-Hearted”: The Language of Gender in the Public Library, 1880–1920’, in Libraries as Agencies of Culture, ed. by Thomas Augst and Wayne Wiegand (Madison: University of Madison Press, 2001), p. 155.

21 Celia Davies, ‘The Sociology of Professions and the Profession of Gender’, Sociology, 30.4 (November 1996), 663.

22 Ibid., p. 664; Adams et al., ‘Introduction’, p. 54.

23 Davies, p. 673.

24 Steven J. Diner, A Very Different Age: Americans of the Progressive Era (New York: Hill and Wang, 1998); Richard Hofstadter, The Age of Reform: From Bryan to F.D.R. (New York: Random House, 1955), pp. 148–73; Thomas J. Schlereth, Victorian America: Transformations in Everyday Life, 1876–1915, ed. by Richard Balkin, Everyday Life in America (New York: HarperCollins, 1991), p. 29; Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877–1920, Making of America (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967), pp. 111–32.

25 Wayne A. Wiegand, The Politics of an Emerging Profession: The American Library Association, 1876–1917, Contributions in Librarianship and Information Science, 56 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1986).

26 Norman Brosterman, Inventing Kindergarten (New York: Abrams, 1997); Diner, p. 198; Hildenbrand, ‘Revision Versus Reality’, pp. 7–27; Passet, pp. 2, 111–13; Schlereth, p. 247; Abigail A. Van Slyck, Free to All: Carnegie Libraries & American Culture, 1890–1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), pp. 162, 174–75.

27 Diner, p. 197; Passet, p. 2.

28 Josephine A. Rathbone, ‘Library Work’, in Vocations for the Trained Woman: Opportunities Other than Teaching, ed. by Agnes F. Perkins (New York: Longmans, Green, & Co., 1910), p. 216.

29 Ibid.

30 Suzanne M. Stauffer, ‘A Good Social Work: Women’s Clubs, Libraries, and the Construction of a Secular Society in Utah, 1890–1920’, Libraries and the Cultural Record, 46.2 (May–June 2011), 140–42.

31 Barbara J. Harris, Beyond her Sphere: Women and the Professions in American History, Contributions in Women’s Studies, 4 (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1978), 35–39; Miriam B. Murphy, ‘The Working Women of Salt Lake City: A Review of the Utah Gazetteer, 1892–93’, Utah Historical Quarterly, 46.2 (1978), 185; Stauffer, ‘A Good Social Work’, pp. 138–39; Suzanne M. Stauffer, ‘Polygamy and the Public Library: The Establishment of Public Libraries in Utah before 1910’, Library Quarterly, 75.3 (July 2005), 352.

32 Harris, Beyond her Sphere, pp. 40, 75–78; Stauffer, ‘A Good Social Work’, p. 141.

33 ‘Local News’, Logan [UT] Journal, 21 February 1921; ‘Married’, Washington County [UT] News, 15 November 1917; Noble Warrum, Utah since Statehood ([n.p.]: S. J. Clarke, 1919), [accessed 2003]; ‘Open House will Honor Woman on 85th Birthday’, Provo, UT, Brigham Young University, Harold B. Lee Library, L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Ida Y. Thorne Diaries and Other Material, MSS 2354; ‘Death Claims Mrs Leon R. Pack after Long Illness’, Vernal [UT] Express, 15 July 1921; Florence Ashby Snow Woolley, In Two Worlds: Florence Ashby Snow Woolley, A Pioneer Daughter of Utah’s Dixie, as dictated to her daughter Elizabeth Woolley Jensen (Kanab: Elizabeth Woolley Jensen, n.d.); Martha Sonntag Bradley, A History of Kane County (Salt Lake City: Utah Historical Society, Kane County Commission, 1996), pp. 181, 202, 230; History of Kane County, ed. by Adonis Findlay Robinson (Salt Lake City: Kane County Daughters of Utah Pioneers, 1970), pp. 259–62.

34 ‘Library to be Closed during Funeral Rites’, Salt Lake Telegram, 2 December 1932.

35 ‘Services in Provo Churches’, Salt Lake Herald, 4 April 1915; ‘The Tooele Ward Sunday School is Disorganized’, Tooele [UT] Transcript, 26 December 1913; ‘Alice K. Hatch Funeral Saturday’, Manti [UT] Messenger, 29 June 1956; ‘Grace H. Lloyd’, Salt Lake Tribune, 29 March 1968; ‘Sunday, Aug 15 …’, Millard County [UT] Chronicle, 19 August 1920.

36 ‘Open House will Honor Woman’; Women Legislators of Utah 1896–1993, ed. by Delila M. Abbott and Beverly J. White (Salt Lake City: Governors Commission for Women and Families, 1993), p. 101; ‘Death Claims Legislator: Brigham City Woman Served in House’, Salt Lake Tribune, 30 January 1938; ‘Mary Biddle’, Price [UT] Sun-Advocate, 28 February 1979.

37 ‘Family Reunion Honors Matron’, Manti Messenger, 16 June 1950; ‘Death Claims Mrs Pack’; ‘Clara Farnsworth’, Salt Lake City, University of Utah, Marriott Library, Special Collections, Historical Faculty Files, 1920–87; ‘Open House will Honor Woman’.

38 ‘Clara Farnsworth’; ‘Library to Be Closed during Funeral Rites’; ‘B.P.W. at Tooele Names Officers’, Salt Lake Telegram, 28 April 1929; ‘City Librarian Dead’, Salt Lake City Deseret News, 9 September 1903; ‘Salt Lake Librarian Dies of Heart Attack after Six-Week Illness’, Salt Lake Telegram, 19 April 1943; ‘Club Notes’, Price [UT] News- Advocate, 28 September 1922; ‘Mrs Cantrill Named New Club Secretary’, Price News-Advocate, 15 July 1926; ‘The Coterie Meeting’, Ogden [UT] Standard, 8 September 1894; ‘The Week in Society’ Ogden Standard, 6 October 1900; ‘Funeral Held Wednesday for Mrs Meredith’, Vernal Express, 9 November 1939; Kanab Ladies’ Literary League, ‘Minutes and Roll, 1914–1917’, Kanab City Library; obituary of Elizabeth Jensen Obituary, Logan [UT] Herald Tribune, 18 February 1979; ‘Rose Hicks Hamblin’, Salt Lake City Deseret News, 20 August 1942.

39 ‘Librarian Appointed’, Salt Lake Telegram, 13 September 1921; ‘Blanche M. Minster’, Salt Lake City Deseret News, 1 February 1975; ‘Free Public Library’, Washington County News, 10 October 1912; Who’s Who in Library Service, ed. by Charles Clarence Williamson and Alice L. Jewett, 2nd edn (New York: H. W. Wilson, 1943); Women of the West: A Series of Biographical Sketches of Living Eminent Women in the Eleven Western States of the United States of America, ed. by Max Binheim (Los Angeles: Publishers Pr., 1928); obituary of Elizabeth Jensen; ‘Clara Farnsworth’.

40 ‘Shafer, Mrs Edna N.’, in Who’s Who in Library Service, ed. by Williamson and Jewett, 2nd edn; ‘Death Takes Retired Librarian’, Ogden Standard, 14 January 1970; ‘35 will Graduate at Agricultural College’, Salt Lake Telegram, 17 February 1919; Alison Thorne Comish, Women in the History of Utah’s Land-Grant College (Logan, UT: The Author, 1986), p. 21; Almeda Perry Brown and Charles Franklin Brown, Memories (Downey, CA: Charles F. Brown, 1993), p. 272; ‘Mrs Ivy Hall Resigns as County Demonstration Agent’, Murray [UT] Eagle, 7 October 1943.

41 ‘Local News’, Logan Journal, 21 February 1921.

42 ‘Married’, Washington County News, 15 November 1917.

43 ‘Garland’, Box Elder [UT] News, 18 April 1916.

44 Dan Valentine, ‘Nothing Serious’, Salt Lake Tribune, 26 October 1951.

45 ‘Library to be Closed during Funeral Rites’; ‘Rose Hicks Hamblin’; ‘Intermountain Obituaries: Grace H. Lloyd’, Salt Lake Tribune, 29 March 1968; ‘Salt Lake Librarian Dies of Heart Attack’; ‘Last Rites Held for Prominent Cedar Woman’, Iron County [UT] Record, 16 March 1933.

46 Stauffer, ‘Good Social Work’.

47 ‘Library Association’, Ogden Standard, 31 January 1894.

48 Howard R. Driggs, ‘The Public Library’, Utah Educational Review, 3 (1909), 20–22.

49 Eddy, p. 163.

50 ‘The M.I.A. Library’, Box Elder News, 25 July 1912; Salt Lake City, Utah State Archives (hereafter UTSA), Ogden Carnegie Free Library Board of Directors, Annual Reports, 1904–13; UTSA, Ogden Carnegie Free Library, Annual Reports, 1895–99, 1904–64; ‘Library to be Closed during Funeral Rites’, Salt Lake Telegram, 2 December 1932.

51 Valentine.

52 Niles Maack, ‘Toward a New Model of the Information Professions’, p. 291.

53 UTSA, Ogden Carnegie Free Library Board of Directors, Annual Reports; Provo City Library, Board of Trustees, Provo City Library Board minutes; George P. Parker to Mary A. Cantrill, 22 December 1932, Price City Library, Price.

54 ‘Women Picked to Serve upon Jury’, Price News-Advocate, 15 December 1921; ‘Clara Farnsworth’.

55 Women Legislators of Utah 1896–1993, ed. by Abbott and White, p. 101; ‘Death Claims Legislator’.

56 Passet, p. 31.

57 ‘Death Takes Retired Librarian’; ‘Miss Hester Bonham Marries on Thanksgiving’, Pueblo [CO] Star-Journal, 27 November 1931; ‘Death Calls to John F. Shafer’, Moab [UT] Grand Valley Times Independent, 13 July 1950; ‘Marriage Licenses’, Salt Lake Telegram, 9 July 1924.

58 Lo, p. 392.

59 Annie E. Chapman, ‘Work among the Chinese’, The Home Missionary, 59.7 (November 1886), 281–85.

60 Daniel Liestman, ‘Utah’s Chinatowns: The Development and Decline of Extinct Ethnic Enclaves’, Utah Historical Quarterly, 64.1 (Winter 1996), 70–95.

61 Chapman; ‘The Pioneer Library’, Salt Lake Tribune, 1 January 1894.

62 ‘City Librarian Dead’.

63 Ibid.

64 ‘Sprague, Joanna H. (Librarian)’. Salt Lake City, Utah State Historical Society, MSS B99, Box 1 Folder 3, J. Cecil Alter Papers, 1920–59; ‘Sprague, Joanna H.’, in Who’s Who in Library Service, ed. by Williamson and Jewett, 2nd edn; B. H. Roberts, Comprehensive History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, 1830–1930 (Salt Lake City: Deseret News Press, 1930), iii, online database http://www.ancestry.com [accessed December 2003].

65 ‘Sprague, Joanna H. (Librarian)’; ‘Sprague, Joanna H.’, in Who’s Who in Library Service, ed. by Williamson and Jewett, 2nd edn; Who’s Who in Library Service, ed. by Charles Clarence Williamson and Alice L. Jewett (New York: H. W. Wilson, 1933), p. 392.

66 Rose Mary Pederson Budge, ‘The Women behind S.L’.s Library’, Deseret News, 9 April 1981, evening edn, section C.

67 Kayla Willey and Connie Lamb, ‘Utah History Corner’, Utah Library Association Newsletter, November 2010, p. 6; January 2011, p. 10.

68 ‘Monthly Reports of the Public Library of Salt Lake City, Utah, 1903–1920’, Salt Lake City Public Library, Special Collections.

69 Provo City Library, Board of Trustees, Provo City Library Board minutes.

70 ‘Local and Personal’, Manti Messenger, 15 December 1916. Farnsworth’s source of library training at that time is unknown; she later attended the Chautauqua Summer School for Librarians in 1919 and 1921, graduated from Brigham Young University in 1929, and attended the University of Utah in 1930–31 and 1933–34 and Teacher’s College of Columbia University in 1937, earning degrees in education (‘Clara Farnsworth’).

71 Marriage Register, St John’s Episcopal Church, Corsicana, TX, 131.

72 ‘Carnegie Library is Appropriately Opened’, Ogden Standard, 22 April 1903.

73 UTSA, Ogden Carnegie Free Library Board of Directors, Board Minutes, 1901–05; UTSA, Weber County (UT), Library, Board Minutes, 1901–66, 1969–.

74 ‘Library Board Meeting’, Ogden Standard, 6 March 1903.

75 Ibid.

76 Zoe E. Faddis to Board of Directors, 28 January 1907, Corsicana, TX, Carnegie Public Library, minutes; Tommy Stringer and Virginia Sherlock Scholle, ‘Corsicana Public Library History’, Navarro County [TX] Scroll, 21 (1987).

77 Zoe E. Faddis to Andrew Carnegie, 1904, Carnegie Corporation of New York, Carnegie Grants for Library Buildings, 1890–1917: microfilm, University of California, Davis, Shields Library.

78 ‘Library Board Meeting’.

79 Warrum.

80 T. S. Parmelee to E. G. Gowans, 18 September 1920, UTSA, Utah State Library Commission, Correspondence, 1912–22; ‘Harris, Grace’, in Who’s Who in Library Service, ed. by Williamson and Jewett, 2nd edn.

81 ‘Grace H. Lloyd’, Salt Lake Tribune, 29 March 1968.

82 Willey and Lamb.

83 UTSA, Ogden Carnegie Free Library Board of Directors, Annual Reports.

84 ‘Librarians Hold Convention’, Box Elder News, 17 April 1917.

85 ‘Report of the Library Board’, Ogden [UT] Evening Standard, 12 June 1912.

86 ‘Death Takes Retired Librarian’.

87 ‘Board Hires New Librarian’, Ogden [UT] Standard Examiner, 28 June 1927.

88 ‘Ogden Public Library Advisor and Assistant to Hundreds; Numerous Odd Requests Heard’, Ogden Standard Examiner, 18 September 1927.

89 ‘Book Week to Start Monday’, Ogden Standard Examiner, 13 November 1927.

90 ‘Warren Wattis, Construction Co Official, is Dead’, Salt Lake Telegram, 22 April 1928; ‘Death Takes Retired Librarian’.

91 Kanab Ladies’ Literary League, ‘Minutes and Roll’, Kanab City Library; Bradley, p. 181; History of Kane County, ed, by Elsie Chamberlain Carroll (Salt Lake City: Kane County Daughters of Utah Pioneers, 1960), p. 93; Blanche Hicks Mace, ‘A Public Library from Scratch, 1962 (?)’, photocopy of typescript, p. 2, Salt Lake City, Utah State Historical Society, Utah History Research Library; History of Kane County, ed. by Robinson, pp. 259–61.

92 Mace, p. 1; Bradley, pp. 181, 202, 230; History of Kane County, ed. by Carroll, pp. viii, 93; Bobbee M. Hepworth, Utah Libraries: Heritage and Horizons (Salt Lake City: Utah Library Association, 1976), p. 41; Kanab Ladies’ Literary League, ‘Minutes and Roll’; History of Kane County, ed. by Robinson, pp. 259–62.

93 Hepworth, pp. 40–41.

94 ‘Rose Hicks Hamblin’.

95 Rose Hicks Hamblin to Mary Elizabeth Downey, 21 September 1919, UTSA, Utah State Library Commission, Correspondence, 1912–22.

96 Ibid.

97 ‘Rose Hicks Hamblin’.

98 Howard R. Driggs to State Board of Examiners, 6 February 1912, UTSA, Utah State Library Commission, Correspondence, 1912–22.

99 Utah Library Association, ‘Minutes’, Salt Lake City, University of Utah, Marriott Library, Special Collections, Utah Library Association Papers.

100 Karen M. Jacobson, ‘Utah’s Library Development’, Utah Educational Review, 5 (May 1912), p. 14.

101 E. Crane Watson, ‘Public Library Pioneer Days’, Iron County Record, 8 December 1928.

102 Jacobson, pp. 14–16.

103 Suzanne M. Stauffer. ‘“She Speaks as One Having Authority”: Mary E. Downey’s Use of Libraries as a Means to Public Power’, Libraries and Culture, 40.1 (Winter 2005), 38–62.

104 Mary Elizabeth Downey to Fannie C. Rawson, 19 November 1915, UTSA, Utah State Library Commission, Correspondence, 1912–22.

105 ‘Ogden Library School Opened’, Ogden Standard-Examiner, 12 April 1920; Mary Elizabeth Downey to Mary E. Ahern, 17 April 1920, UTSA, Utah State Library Commission, Correspondence, 1912–22.

106 ‘Miss Downey Talks’, Ottumwa [IA] Courier, 29 October 1902.

107 Mary Elizabeth Downey, ‘Chautauqua School for Librarians’, Library Journal, 47 (1922), 455–57.

108 ‘Entire City to Join in Celebration over our Splendid Library’, Price News-Advocate, 3 March 1916.

109 Howard R. Driggs, ‘Library Progress’, Utah Educational Review, 5 (March 1912), 10.

110 Utah Library Association. Minutes.

111 ‘Librarians to Effect Organization’, Salt Lake Telegram, 8 June 1912.

112 ‘Library Meeting Next Month’, Salt Lake Telegram, 28 May 1914.

113 ‘Children’s Books to be Discussed at Meeting’, Salt Lake Telegram, 9 December 1915.

114 ‘Program Ready for Librarians’, Salt Lake Telegram, 1 October 1920.

115 ‘Librarians Organize and Elect Officers’, Salt Lake Telegram, 10 June 1912; ‘Children’s Books to be Discussed at Meeting’; ‘Utah Library Association’, Library Journal, November 1917, p. 901; ‘Mrs E.C. Watson Heads Librarians’, Salt Lake Telegram, 24 July 1927; ‘Vernal Woman is New Vice Pres. of Librarians’, Vernal Express, 17 October 1929; ‘Nelson, Esther’, in Who’s Who in Library Service, ed. by Williamson and Jewett, 2nd edn.

116 Harris, Librarianship; Grotzinger, ‘Invisible, Indestructible Network’; Laurel Ann Grotzinger, The Power and the Dignity: Librarianship and Katharine Sharp (New York: Scarecrow, 1966); Mary Niles Maack, ‘“No philosophy carries so much conviction as the personal life”: Mary Wright Plummer as an Independent Woman’, Library Quarterly, 70.1 (January 2000), 1–46; Niles Maack, ‘Women as Visionaries’; Passet; Louise S. Robbins, The Dismissal of Miss Ruth Brown: Civil Rights, Censorship and the American Library (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, c. 2000); Sallee.