Precursors to Mathematical Skills: Examining the Roles of Visual-Spatial Skills, Executive Processes, and Parenting Factors

Abstract

This study examined, via structural equation modeling, whether children's visual-spatial and executive process skills across 3 to 6 years of age were cognitive precursors to 8-year-old mathematical competence. The extent to which mothers directed their children's behavior at age 2 was examined in the model for its importance as an environmental influence. Full-term (n = 90) and preterm children (n = 160) were seen at 2, 3, 4, 6, and 8 years of age with their mothers to measure children's cognitive and math abilities and observe mothers' directive interactive style. Hypotheses concerning the negative effects of maternal directiveness at age 2, acting as a direct environmental influence on visual-spatial and executive-processing skills and an indirect influence on later math abilities, were supported. In addition, visual-spatial and executive-processing skills were found to have their own specific effects on math abilities. Visual-spatial skills were found to provide an important early foundation for both executive processing, and later, math abilities. Results are discussed in terms of the importance of the parenting environment and interrelations among a core group of basic skills necessary for understanding children's later math competence.