Effect Size for Token Economy Use in Contemporary Classroom Settings: A Meta-Analysis of Single-Case Research

Abstract.

Recent meta-analyses of the effectiveness of token economies (TEs) report insufficient quality in the research or mixed effects in the results. This study examines the contemporary (post-Public Law 94-142) peer-reviewed published single-case research evaluating the effectiveness of TEs. The results are stratified across quality of demonstrated functional relationship using a nonparametric effect size (ES) that controls for undesirable baseline trends in the analysis. In addition, moderators (i.e., classroom setting, age of participant, outcomes, use of response cost, and use of verbal cueing) were analyzed. Eighty-eight AB phase contrasts were calculated from 28 studies (1980–2014) representing 90 participants and produced a weighted mean ES of 0.82 (SE = 0.03, 95% CI [0.77, 0.88]). Strong quality produced a combined weighted mean ES of 0.85 (SE = 0.642, 95% CI [0.74, 0.97]). Moderator analyses revealed that a TE was slightly more effective for youth between the ages of 6 and 15 years than for children between the ages of 3 and 5 years or when used with behavioral goals in comparison to academic goals. However, no difference was found when implemented in general or special education settings or with the inclusion of response cost or verbal cueing.

Notes

References marked with an asterisk indicate studies included in the meta-analysis.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Denise A. Soares

Denise A. Soares, PhD, is the Assistant Department Chair of Teacher Education, an assistant professor of special education, and Special Education Program Coordinator at the University of Mississippi. Her research interests include applied and practical experiences in academic and behavior interventions for at-risk students, as well as examining the efficacy of those interventions in classroom settings where teachers have competing time demands.

Judith R. Harrison

Judith R. Harrison, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Educational Psychology–Special Education at Rutgers University in New Brunswick, New Jersey. Her research interests include the effectiveness, acceptability, and feasibility of assessment, interventions, and other services for youth with emotional and behavioral disorders and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

Kimberly J. Vannest

Kimberly J. Vannest, PhD, is a professor in the Department of Educational Psychology–Special Education at Texas A&M University. Her research interests are in determining effective interventions for children and youth with or at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders, including teacher behaviors and measurement.

Susan S. McClelland

Susan S. McClelland, PhD, is an associate professor of educational leadership and Chair of the Department of Teacher Education at the University of Mississippi. Her research interests include leadership for students with disabilities, literacy, school and organizational culture, and issues relating to rural education.