Abstract
Targeted drug delivery by nanoparticles (NPs) is an essential technique to achieve the ideal therapeutic effect for cancer. However, it requires large amounts of work to imitate the biomarkers on the surface of the cell membrane and cannot fully retain the bio-function and interactions among cells. Cell membranes have been studied to form biomimetic NPs to achieve functions like immune escape, targeted drug delivery, and immune modulation, which inherit the ability to interact with the in vivo environments. Currently, erythrocyte, leukocyte, mesenchymal stem cell, cancer cell and platelet have been applied in coating photothermal agents and anti-cancer drugs to achieve increased photothermal conversion efficiency and decreased side effects in cancer ablation. In this review, we discuss the recent development of cell membrane-coated NPs in the application of photothermal therapy and cancer targeting. The underlying biomarkers of cell membrane-coated nanoparticles (CMNPs) are discussed, and future research directions are suggested.
Introduction
Cancer is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the number of cancer-related mortalities per year is predicted to increase by 45% from 2007 to 2030. However, the non-targeted distribution of theranostic agents throughout the body and the poor targeting ability and bioavailability tend to demonstrate rapid excretion and severe toxicity, and thus, they require large dosages to achieve the ideal concentration in the targeted site.
Since its first observation in the 1980s, the enhanced permeation and retention (EPR), which refers to the ability of solid tumors in animal models to selectively accumulate and retain polymeric drugs and nanomedicines,Citation1,Citation2 has been widely used in the design of anti-cancer drugs. Due to the EPR effect, nanoparticles (NPs), with the modification of shape, size and surface properties, have preferential accumulation in the tumor area (). Nanotechnology has been rapidly developed and applied in various areas of biomedical research, including targeted drug delivery, vaccination,Citation3,Citation4 gene delivery,Citation5 antimicrobial,Citation6 tissue engineering,Citation7 monitoring cancer cells’ phenotypic evolution during therapy to provide advice for treatment adjustment,Citation8 and photothermal therapy (PTT).Citation9–Citation12
PTT is a laser-based technique that requires optical absorbing agents to effectively convert energy from laser irradiation into heat to kill cancer cells, it is highly selective and can minimize the damage to the non-targeted regions.Citation13 The current optical absorbing agents include various inorganic and organic nanoparticles with strong near infrared (NIR) absorbance. However, those synthetic NPs are exogenetic to the human body, and underlying concerns like easy recognition and capture by the reticuloendothelial system, and antibodies generated against those NPs causing early elimination from the blood have been raised. Moreover, safety concerns about non-biodegradable inorganic materials such as oxidative stress and lung inflammation, impaired efficiency of anti-tumor ability are asked by researchers. Answer to these questions, many approaches have been developed.Citation14–Citation16 Polyethylene glycol (PEG) modification of NPs has been made to enhance the longevity in blood circulation. However, anti-PEG immune response, renal damage and complex synthesis procedures still concern researchers.Citation14 Some biomimetic NPs have been designed to imitate the extremely abundant protein and antigens associated with the biological function of the cell membrane. However, the process is rather complex and the results are barely satisfactory.
Since the 20th century, cells were employed to traffic drugs in treatment.Citation17–Citation20 However, concerns have been raised since drugs can be degraded or exocytosed by living cells, which will largely decrease the therapeutic effect of drugs. Furthermore, cells used in this kind of method are limited to normal cells, since the safety concerns will be raised genetically about the potential pathogenic ability if cells like tumor cells are considered.Citation21 Beside cells, lipid-based nanoparticles have been developed as a cancer-targeted theranostic agent to achieve the purpose of diagnosis and treatment of cancer, as well as the monitoring of drug distribution.Citation22,Citation23 However, concerns about long-term safety for in vivo applications still exist.Citation22 Furthermore, exosomes, extracellular vesicles which can bypass biological barriers including the blood brain barrier, have been considered as promising drug delivery carriers. Despite advantages like high stability in blood and immune tolerance, the application of exosomes is limited by the low quantity released by cells and the complicated purification procedure.Citation24,Citation25
In recent researches, cell membrane-coated nanoparticles (CMNPs) have demonstrated their unique ability of targeting, precisely delivering and controlling release of drugs in cancer sites, and immune activation. The functionality and complexity of cell membrane combined with the variability of the NPs lead to the high adaptability of CMNPs to the specific microenvironment of tumors and the intention of treatment. With the decoration of cell membrane, CMNPs can acquire various functions of different sources of cells, including the extravasation, chemotaxis, and cancer cell adhesion function of cancer cells if their membranes are collected. Moreover, the lipid bilayer provides an ideal foundation for the surface modification with a peptide or an antibody to achieve the goal of active targeting without damaging the existing membrane protein.Citation26 Currently, membranes of erythrocytes, immune cells, platelets, stem cells, endothelial cells, activated fibroblast cells and even cancer cells have been studied for their abilities as a carrier.Citation27–Citation33
Cell membrane camouflaged delivery system has been widely used in various fields, including drug delivery for the treatment of cancerCitation19,Citation34–Citation36 or other diseases like inflammatory arthritis,Citation37 deadly bacterial infections,Citation38–Citation40 imaging (MRI, fluorescence/photoacoustic imaging),Citation28,Citation33,Citation41–Citation43 anticancer vaccination,Citation44 detoxification,Citation45 and virus detecting.Citation46 In this article, we aim to provide an up-to-date review of various membrane-derived CMNPs for the PTT of cancer and the reported methods to collect and purify membranes.
Membrane sources for CMNPs
Erythrocytes
Erythrocytes are one of the most abundant cell types in blood. Since the first blood transfusion performed in 1667, it has become an important emergency and inpatient treatment in clinical application. Moreover, it lacks organelles like a cell nucleus and mitochondria, which is convenient for membrane extraction and purification. Erythrocytes have demonstrated their promising potential in the treatment of various diseases as long as the blood types match with the donor free of infectious diseases.
Red blood cells (RBCs) membrane was the first to be used to form cell membrane-coated nanoparticles, which were first derived by hypotonic treatment in 2011 by Che-Ming J. Hu and colleagues.Citation29 Many researches regarding RBC-coated NPs were conducted after the first introduction. Ren et alCitation47 designed oxygen self-enriched RBCs with a long circulation time and high oxygen capacity (). Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) revealed a core-shell structure as expected in a lipid bilayer-coated polymeric particle with approximately 70 nm-diameter polymeric core and an outer lipid shell 7–8 nm in thickness (). The hydrodynamic diameters (). and zeta potentials () measured 180 nm and −16 mV, respectively. It is reported that RBC membrane can completely shield and stabilize NPs by lipid membranes and surface glycans, and can successfully coat nanoparticle substrates between 65 and 340 nm in diameter with the cell surface proteins retained in a right-side-out manner.Citation48
RBC can achieve immune-evasive by the interaction of CD47, a marker on RBC membrane, with SIRPα, expressed by phagocytic cells, to inhibit phagocytosis of RBCs by immune cells.Citation49 Besides RBCs, CD47 and its analogs have been proved to contribute to the in vivo survival of cancer cellsCitation50 and viruses.Citation51 Careful studies about the surface properties of RBC-NPs showed the formed NPs possess similar density of CD47 to the source RBCs.Citation52 More importantly, with the electrostatic repulsion between the negatively charged NPs core and the negatively charged extracellular side of the membranes, the surface proteins were proved to be oriented almost exclusively in the right-side-out fashion, with the extracellular part displayed on the RBC-NPs surface.Citation48 Moreover, the composition of membrane proteins was mostly retained on the RBC-NPs (), with most of the functions of RBC inherited by the coated-NPs and demonstrating longer elimination half-life than bare NPs.Citation29
In PTT cancer treatment, RBC-NPs showed improved efficacy with the faster decrease of tumor volumes and higher survival rate than bare NPsCitation53 (). By coating RBC membrane onto iron oxide magnetic clusters, the NPs demonstrated increased MRI imaging and heat converting ability,Citation41 the properties which iron oxide already ownCitation54 (). It can be speculated that, the RBC-NPs inherited the photothermal conversion effects from the inner cores and the long blood retention from the RBC membrane coating. Besides coating the synthetic NPs with a membrane, chemotherapy agents can also be camouflaged. It has been demonstrated that the hypoxic environment of tumor tissue may promote the growth and metastasis.Citation55 Qian et alCitation30 designed a NP-RBC membrane camouflaged Prussian blue/manganese dioxide (PBMn) to efficiently catalyze the relatively abundant H2O2 in the tumor microenvironment, along with doxorubicin (DOX), to achieve the purpose of relieving hypoxia and improving photothermal conversion efficacy. Under irradiation for 5 minutes, the tumors treated by PBMn-DOX@RBC reached 59.6°C, while tumors treated by PBMn reached only 49.3°C. Researchers also studied the combination of non-toxic and biodegradable natural melanin nanoparticles extracted from living cuttlefish and RBC membrane.Citation34 This NP inherited photoacoustic (PA) imaging capability, optimal accumulation in tumors, and significantly higher PTT efficacy. A study combining the photosensitizer (PS) of photodynamic therapy (PDT) and agents meditating PTT showed enhanced tumor ablation ability.Citation47
However, despite the immune escape and long blood retention time for RBC-NPs, the ability to actively target cancer cells and accumulate in cancer tissues is not satisfying. Chemical synthesis is a common way to introduce targeting ligands to the surface of cell membrane, however, it may damage the property and protein components of the membrane, which the functions of cell membrane are based on. Based on this consideration, a lipid-insertion approach has been developed.Citation26,Citation35,Citation56,Citation57 Fu et alCitation35 designed a DSPE-PEG (1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-PEG) decorated cyclic Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD), which could be simultaneously inserted into the phospholipid layer of erythrocyte membranes. This process achieved prolonged circulation time, increased tumor uptake and accumulation, and lead to remarkably reduced tumor cell viability to 20%, improved survival rate, and decreased side effects (). It has been approved that the lipid-insertion approach can enhance the tumor-targeting ability of NPsCitation56 (). Fang et alCitation26 demonstrated that the lipid-insertion method can be applied to ligands of different molecular weights, including relatively large targeting ligands. Moreover, ligand density on the membranes can be adjusted by controlling the lipid-tethered ligand input. Liu et alCitation58 designed epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCam)-RPAuNs, which is Au nanocages (AuNs) encapsulated antitumor drug paclitaxel coated by anti-EpCam antibodies modified RBC membranes. EpCam-RPAuNs showed increased cancer targeting ability by anti-EpCam antibodies, and the paclitaxel can be released when membrane was destroyed by heat generated by AuNs under laser irradiation to exert anti-cancer effects.
Leukocytes
Leukocytes are a cell population which includes granulocytes, monocytes and lymphocytes. They are widespread in blood vessels and lymphatic vessels as well as other tissues due to the amoeboid movement, which enables leukocytes to migrate between extravascular tissues and vessels. Chronic inflammation has been featured as one of the major characteristics of cancers in various stages, which may be partly due to the altered tissue homeostasis and integrity.Citation59 Thus, various kinds of inflammatory cells are attracted by various cytokines, chemokines and prostaglandins produced by cancer cells and involved in progression of the tumor.Citation60 The study by Zhang et al61 showed CXCR2, and LFA-1 play a key role in leukocyte homing to inflamed sites.Citation61 However, some immune cells finally turn into an accomplice to cancer, like tumor-associated macrophages (M2 subtype) or fibroblasts, which associate with active promotion of tumorigenesis and inhibition of a protective immune response. Moreover, myeloid-derived suppressor cells recruited by CCL2, CXCL5, CXCL12 and stem cell factor secreted by tumor cells can suppress T cell function.Citation62,Citation63 Currently, various treatments have been developed targeting immune cells, including but not limited to anti-cytotoxic-T lymphocyte protein-4 and anti-programmed cell death 1 ligand 1 antibodies, macrophage colony-stimulating factor receptor inhibitors, and CD40 agonist CP-870,893 (Pfizer Inc., New York, NY, USA), they have achieved increased efficacy but not enough targeting ability.Citation32 However, the inflammation and tumor targeting ability of leukocyte makes it a potential candidate for the design of biomimetic NPs in PTT.
A large number of leukocytes associated with cancer immunology are macrophages. It can recognize and engulf cancer cells and any substances that do not have the specific biomarkers on their surface. The innate inflammation-directed chemotactic ability of macrophages could bring the carried agents to accumulate in chronic inflammatory tumor tissue.Citation64 In 2013, Tasciottet al65 used leukocytes to derive cellular membranes, and coated nanoporous silicon particles to form leukolike vectors (LLVs).Citation65 This design showed enhanced circulation time and improved accumulation in a tumor. For particles coated with J774 macrophage-like and THP-1 cell membrane, there was a 75% and 50% decrease in uptake by their source cells, respectively. Biomarkers and adhesion molecules used for vascular extravasation, like CD45, CD3z and CD11a were retained in the surface of LLVs, which may contribute to the reduced particle opsonization, delayed phagocytic uptake, increased trans-endothelium and targeted ability. Followed this study, many researches have been carried out using macrophage membrane. Meng et alCitation66 collected macrophage membrane-derived vesicles and then coated them onto Fe3O4 NPs, a kind of nanomaterial that has been licensed by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The derived NPs demonstrated favorable biocompatibility, immune evasion ability through CD47, a biomarker that embedded in cell membranes, ideal cancer targeting ability and photothermal efficiency. Another study combined macrophage cell membrane and gold NPs (AuNPs) to achieve enhanced blood circulation time and local accumulation at the tumor, which is 83.18% of the coated NPs were internalized by 4T1 cancer cells incubated for 24 hours, whereas only 42.15% of the AuNPs were taken up. And thus, the increased taking up leads to increased PTT efficacy of AuNPsCitation67 (, I–).
It has been proved that macrophage membrane-coated NPs can achieve tumor-targeted chemotherapy delivery with a controlled release profile in response to tumor microenvironment stimuli.Citation68 Zhang et alCitation68 designed a step-by-step release strategy using the reduced pH in tumor microenvironment. After the eruption of coated membrane caused by interstitial pH of tumor tissue, the inner core will be taken up by tumor cells and intracellular pH of the tumor cells will lead to the release of chemo-drugs in NPs. Their resulting formulation (cskc-PPiP/PTX@Ma) exhibited favorable tumor-homing ability in systemic circulation and high biocompatibility (). A Janus particle designed by He et alCitation69 is half cloaked by Au shell and half cloaked by THP-1 cellular membrane, and achieves improved cancer cell targeting ability, strong near infrared (NIR) absorption and ideal photothermal efficacy: the laser density of 23.6 mW/μmCitation2 correlates to a temperature of 70−90°C on the fully gold-coated side and 40−45°C of the half-coated side due to a thinner gold layer and incomplete coating. Those two kinds of designs providedus with a new perspective of combining the cell membrane and photothermal agents according to the unique properties of the cancer microenvironment.
Besides macrophage, cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) membrane is another studied leukocyte membrane in the delivery of NPs. CTL can specifically recognize the antigen on the surface of tumor cells, which is presented by the antigen presenting cell, and activate anti-tumor immune response. Thus, the ability to be recruited and localized at tumor sites makes CTL an ideal candidate to create biomimetic delivery system. Studies about the combination of CTL membrane-coated NPs and local low-dose irradiation (LDI) demonstrated that camouflaging with CTL membranes would prolong the circulation time and improve tumor targeting ability. Moreover, LDI may increase the expression level of ICAM-1, a ligand for LFA-1.Citation70 During the process of leukocyte adhesion, the interaction between LFA-1 and ICAM-1 is important, and it may also attribute to the localization of leukocytes in tumors. This reminds us that when we make use of the existing properties of cells, an additional treatment can be applied to enhance it. It may be applicable to combine the LDI and PTT to achieve greater efficacy.
In the progression of malignant tumors, distant metastasis mostly results from dissemination, seeding, and colonization of circulating tumor cells (CTCs). Among all the immune response cells, inflammatory neutrophils possess a CTC-targeting property which depends largely on the distinct adhesion molecules on the membrane of neutrophils, and can regulate the adhesion process of metastasis.Citation71 A study combined poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) NPs and neutrophil membranes showed the formed neutrophil-mimicking nanoparticles (NM-NPs) can retain most of the membrane protein (), and functional adhesion proteins like L-selectin, LFA-1, β1 integrin, CXCR4 are fully preserved (). Compared with PLGA NPs, NM-NPs could capture CTCs and target metastasis lesions more efficiently, and show lower toxicity (). More importantly, it displayed the ability of prevention of the formation of early metastasis and the progression of already formed metastatic lesions.Citation36 Compared with other cell types, monocyte is a relatively less studied membrane source in delivering NPs. Chan et alCitation31 combined a drug-loaded PLGA core with monocyte cell membrane-derived shell to derive core-shell type “nanoghosts” with the ability of enhanced target specificity and efficacy.
Cancer cells
Unlike other kinds of cells, cancer cells possess their unique characteristics like enabling replicative immortality, inducing angiogenesis, homologous targeting abilities and activating invasion and metastasis.Citation72 Studies have indicated that interactions of surface adhesion molecules like T antigen-galectin-3,Citation73 and EpCAMCitation74 mediate homotypic intercellular adhesion of metastatic malignant tumor cells. The homotypic binding phenomenon allows tumor cells to bind with each other and leads to the rapid growing of metastatic masses.
Since normal cells like RBC and WBC cannot efficiently target malignancies, the intercellular homologous binding capability of cancer cells have attracted the attention of researchers. Thus, surface modification of NPs by cancer cell membrane is being studied in current researches. A study conducted by Cai et alCitation28 combined the fluorescence (FL)/PA imaging and photothermal ability of indocyanine green (ICG) and homologous targeting ability of cancer cell membrane to form the ICNP, a membrane-coated NP, which realize the purpose of high tumor accumulation, real-time dual-modal imaging with high spatial resolution, and significantly enhanced PTT efficiency. Under continuous laser irradiation for 8 minutes, the maximum temperature of free ICG, PBS and ICNPs reached 68.4°C, 27.6°C and 74.2°C, respectively. Magnetic nanobead with the ability of MR/NIR fluorescence imaging and cancer cell membrane with homing ability are also being studiedCitation43().
Current studies have combined the membrane materials derived from cancer cells and other cell types, like erythrocytes. A study created a hybrid biomimetic coating by fusing membrane of RBCs and melanoma cell line (B16-F10 cells) together, and camouflaged DOX-loaded hollow copper sulfide nanoparticles, to achieve prolonged blood retention time, enhanced homogenous targeting abilities, and excellent synergistic photothermal/chemotherapy inherited from the components of NPs. These synthetic NPs achieved about 100% melanoma tumor growth inhibition rateCitation75 ().
Platelets
Platelets (PLT), also called thrombocytes, are fragments of the cytoplasm of megakaryocytes originating from the bone marrow, and then entering the circulation. The circulation lifetime of platelets is approximately 7–10 days. The main function of platelets is to contribute to hemostasis. It has also been found that activated platelets are able to participate in adaptive immunity by releasing antimicrobial peptides, defensins, and proteases against bacteria. It is demonstrated that platelets can recognize CTCs and protect tumor cells from immune elimination and promote their adhesion to the endothelium through the surface molecules and released factors.Citation76 The interaction between PLT and cancer cells is mainly through P-selectin and CD44, which are expressed in PLT and many cancer cells, respectively.Citation77 This adhesion is named as tumor cell-induced platelet aggregation (TCIPA).Citation78
Membranes derived from platelets have been coated onto NPs like Fe3O4 to enable long circulation, cancer targeting capabilities from PLT, and imaging, optical absorption properties and PTT ability from NPsCitation79 (). Besides the general benefits obtained from membrane coating, Rao et alCitation79 found PTT treatment could facilitate PLT-NPs gathering in the PTT sites. This phenomenon mainly results from the function of PLTs in sealing injured vessels as the PTT damages blood vessels. The coating can also protect the quickly oxidized NPs from the exposition of oxygen and normal tissue besides targeted tumor. Zou et alCitation80 derived PLT membrane to coat metformin, a conventional antidiabetic drug with the property of anti-oxidant, and W18O49 NPs, which can generate reactive oxygen species (ROS)Citation81 and heat with high photothermal conversion efficacy under irradiation, to form PM-W18O49-Met NPs. This design combined the efficacy of PDT and PTT, and showed enhanced tumor ablation ability. After 10 minutes excitation under an 808 nm laser, the total apoptosis rate in the PM-W18O49-Met group reached about 88.30% (). A recent study reported the combination of RBC-membrane and PLT-membrane, the hybrid inherited the properties of these two kinds of cells, which are the long blood retention time of RBC and inflammation and damaged vessel targeting ability of PLTCitation82 ().
Mesenchymal stem cells
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are multipotent progenitor cells that possess the ability of self-renewal and multi-potential differentiation. They have the potential of multiple clinical applications including increasing the success rate of transplants, reducing the side effects after chemotherapy, and in the treatment of auto-immune diseases. The role of MSCs in tumor development and metastasis have been studied in recent years. MSCs may exert direct paracrine influences on the tumor cells, promote the formation of tumor vasculature, and respond to the chemotactic signals transmitted by tumor cells. It may also be able to differentiate into other types of cells in tumor stromal, like tumor-associated fibroblasts.Citation83–Citation85 The homing of MSCs to malignancies is meditated by many mechanisms, like by CCL25 or sodium iodide symporter under the control of RANTES/CCL-5 promoter.Citation86–Citation88 It was reported that the targeting mechanism of MSCs is tumor-specific but not species-specific, which allows the application of MSCs derived from other species and expands the sources of cells.Citation89
Mesenchymal stem cell membrane-coated gelatin nanogels (SCMGs) designed by He et alCitation90 coated stem cell membrane to gelatin nanogels and DOX displayed long-term stability, pH-responsive drug release behavior and high drug-loading capacity. More importantly, it demonstrated excellent cancer targeting ability and enhanced accumulation in the tumor site. A similar drug delivery system coated with PLGA and DOX showed tumor-homing and anti-tumor features.Citation91 In addition to drug delivering, stem cell membranes were used to camouflage upconversion NPs to improve the efficacy of deep-tissue PDT cancer treatment.Citation92 Since MSC membrane has displayed promising tumor targeting and drug delivering ability in former studies, it is plausible to assume that it will enhance PTT by coating agents with high heat conversion rate and achieve ideal tumor ablation results.
Isolation methods to attain membranes
Despite the fact that CMNPs have been widely studied, the approaches of cell membrane extraction are limited with low output. The isolation of RBC membrane is now an extensively used approach with different moderations in different research groups. The basic steps include purifying the RBCs from whole blood, subject the RBCs to hypotonic medium treatment for hemolysis, centrifuging the mixture to remove hemoglobin and attain RBC ghosts.Citation29
The eukaryocyte membrane aside from RBCs can be attained via a combination of hypotonic treatments, mechanical membrane disruption, and high-speed differential centrifugation. During the disruption and membrane purification process, DNase and RNase were plied to remove nuclear components, thereby alleviating concerns with the administration of genetic material to induce tumors. Ultracentrifugation through a discontinuous sucrose density gradient after hypotonic treatment can collect the cell membranes. The process of sucrose gradientCitation65 or differential centrifugationCitation93 can separate the cell membrane from nuclear and mitochondrial components.
Another method for the preparation of membrane is by dispersing the cells in membrane protein extraction buffer solution and treat them with sonication for 1 min, and then extrude the mixture through polycarbonate porous membranes.Citation33 The freezing and thawing method is also used to attain cell membranes. After placing in an ice bath for several minutes, the cells were subjected to freezing and thawing cycles, and were centrifuged at different conditions to get purified cell membranes.Citation94,Citation95
Formation of CMNPs
During the process of coating the cell membrane onto the NPs, many aspects including membrane/NP ratio, surface charge and NP diameter can affect the results of coating. Since the electrostatic repulsion between the NP cores and asymmetrically charged membrane is a key factor in fabricating core-shell structure with the membrane to be right side out, it is crucial to design the surface charge of NPs to be opposite to that of the inner side of membrane.Citation21 There have been various methods to achieve the goal of membrane-coated particles. The sonication method uses a bath sonicator to deal with the mixed solution of particles and cell membrane vesicles, the desired nanoparticles can be attained after several minutes.Citation96 During the process, the frequency, power and duration should be optimized to avoid protein denaturation and maximized the fusion rate. Another method to achieve the purpose is to extrude the mixture through a polycarbonate porous membrane, the diameters of the membrane vary depending on the size of the particles.Citation48 The combination of the above two methods can also be applied to attain the coated NPs.Citation28,Citation29
In addition, a cell membrane-templated gelation technique has also been used to form such particles. Instead of wrapping cell membrane onto pre-formed nanoparticle substrates, this approach uses vesicles to “guide” the core formation by extruding the reaction mixture through 100 nm porous membranes to generate RBC membrane-derived vesicles containing the reactants within the vesicles. It is reported to be flexible and can overcome the restrictions imposed by the surface and size of nanoparticle cores.Citation97 The cell membrane-to-nanoparticles ratio should be carefully controlled in all the methods to achieve maximum coating rate.
Recently, microfluidic electroporation-facilitated synthesis cell membrane-coated nanoparticles have been reported by Rao et al.Citation42 A microfluidic chip consisting of five primary parts (two inlets, a Y-shaped merging channel, an S-shaped mixing channel, an electroporation zone and one outlet) was used for electroporation in this process. The Fe3O4 magnetic nanoparticles (MNs) and RBC-vesicles were infused into the microfluidic chip and adequately mixed. After that, the mixture of MNs and RBC-vesicles was passed through the electroporation zone where the electric pulses can effectively promote the entry of MNs into RBC-vesicles. The resulting RBC-MNs demonstrated excellent enhanced tumor magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and PTT, and better treatment effect.
The underlying biomarkers in CMNPs-based therapy
As has been discussed in the previous part of the article, the interactions among cells and cells with the extracellular matrix are meditated by cell adhesion molecules and various biomarkers on the surface of cells. They are crucial biomarkers for researchers to identify the successful membrane-coating process and the maintenance of cell membrane biological functions. CD47 is a biomarker on many cell types, like RBCs and cancer cells. It can assist cells to achieve immune evasion and prolong their blood retention time by interaction with a marker expressed on phagocytic cells, SIRPα.Citation49,Citation50 It can protect cancer cells from phagocytosis by myeloid cells, and help cancer stem cells (CSCs) to survive from conventional anti-tumor therapies and cause cancer recurrence.Citation98,Citation99 In the function of leukocytes, CXCR2, and LFA-1 play a key role in leukocyte homing to inflamed sites,Citation61 and biomarkers and adhesion molecule like CD45, CD3z and CD11a were used for vascular extravasation.Citation65 Besides, the homing of MSCs to malignancies is meditated by mechanisms like CCL25 or sodium iodide symporter under the control of RANTES/CCL-5 promoter.Citation86–Citation88 The metastatic cascade of late-stage cancer can be concluded as two coordinated subsequent steps, heterotypic adhesion to the microvascular endothelium and homotypic aggregation.Citation74 Studies have suggested that homotypic aggregation of cancer cells was meditated by interactions of surface adhesion molecules like T antigen-galectin-3, EpCAM and tumor-associated Thomsen-Friedenreich glycoantigen.Citation74 The interaction between PLT and cancer cells is mainly through ligands on the surface of cell membranes, P-selectin, platelet α6β1 and C-type lectin-like receptor 2 (CLEC2) are some biomarkers expressed in cancer-related PLTs, and CD44 and metalloproteinase 9 are expressed on many cancer cells ().Citation77,Citation100,Citation101
Toxicity, target ability and immunogenicity of CMNPs
Since functions like the tumor targeting ability of leukocytes and homologous binding capability of tumor cells inherited accordingly by CMNPs reducing drug release and accumulation in non-target areas, the anti-cancer drugs carried by CMNPs have demonstrated reduced toxicity and side effects, and prolonged survival rate in the research of in vivo studies, even with much larger dosages than regular use.Citation102
Besides drug delivery and PTT, CMNPs can also be applied in tumor vaccines for cancer prevention and treatment. By surface modification of cancer cell membrane and the loaded anti-cancer or immune modulation drugs, biomimetic nanovaccines could effectively migrate to draining lymph nodes (LNs) and trigger anti-tumor immune responses. And thus, realize delayed tumor development as well as outstanding therapeutic efficacy to established tumors.Citation103,Citation104 Since blood cells like RBCs and WBCs lack the protein that recognizes ligands on tumor cell surfaces, the merger of targeted tumor cells and other cell membranes can provide the combined ability of homing on malignancies and immune escape ability from normal cells.
It has been pointed out that protein corona formation around the NPs during the interaction of inorganic NPs and many biological fluids may exert great influence on their surface properties and functions.Citation105 Although some studies indicated protein corona may hamper the targeting to desired tissues, and prevent cell damage and decrease cell uptake,Citation106,Citation107 others have reported it may induce the higher uptake.Citation108 For NPs functionalized by proteins, antibodies or other biomolecules, protein corona may cover the targeting ligands on the surface and reduce their targeting capabilities. Research concerning protein corona formation after cell membrane camouflaging has suggested that RBC membranes can effectively prevent protein adsorption on the surface of NPs, and thus, maintain the biological properties of CMNPs. The natural properties of cell membranes may be the reason for the prevention of protein corona.Citation109
Conclusion
CMNPs formed using different kinds of cells inherited from the complex protein components of the membrane surface, and thus, retained the biological functions cells exert in the circulation and with other cells. This procedure avoids the complicated identification and synthesis process to restore membrane protein and imitate their functions, and integrate the strength of synthetic and biological systems. CMNPs have demonstrated ideal targeting and immune escaping ability, prolonged blood retention time, controlled drug loading and releasing, reduced toxicity and side effects, as well as the prevention of protein corona formation in the currently ongoing in vitro and in vivo studies.
Despite the above advantages of CMNPs, this method still requires future improvement. Since the amount of NPs that are needed to acquire ideal therapeutic effect require relatively large numbers of cells, cell loss during the process of membrane extraction and camouflage should be reduced with modification. Moreover, the complex synthetic approach of forming and identifying such NPs needs to be simplified to realize further application. For cancer cell membrane, the nucleus and the genetic material should be strictly removed to eliminate the underlying oncogenic possibility. Since RBCs and WBCs are important sources of membrane and leukocytes are highly heterogeneous, blood-type compatibility tests and infectious diseases screening of the donor should be carried out if allogenic blood is used as the membrane source.
In conclusion, the newly developed cell membrane cloaked system showed its potential in the treatment of a wide range of diseases. With the modification of isolation and purification approach, these biomimetic NPs may have a high safety and promising therapeutic efficiency platform for clinical cancer treatment.
Author contributions
All authors contributed to data analysis, drafting or revising the article, gave final approval of the version to be published, and agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work.
Disclosure
The authors report no conflicts of interest in this work.
Acknowledgments
This research was funded by the Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 81772285), Shanghai Science and Technology Commission Project (No. 17411968700, 18441900300), Shanghai Science & Technology Research Program (13JC1401403), Shanghai Health System Excellent Personnel Training Program (No. 2017YQ051), Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2017M621534, BX201700173), and the Key Developing Disciplines of Shanghai Municipal Commission of Health and Family Planning (2015ZB0602).
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