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Abstract
Electronic noses (eNoses) are an emerging class of experimental diagnostic tools. They are based on the detection of volatile organic compounds. Urine is used as sample medium in several publications but neither the effect of chronic kidney disease (CKD) on the analysis nor the potential to detect CKD has been explored. Materials & methods: We utilized an eNose based on field asymmetric ion mobility spectrometry (FAIMS) technology to classify urine samples from CKD patients and controls. Results: We were able to differentiate extremes of kidney function with an accuracy of 81.4%. Conclusion: In this preliminary study, applying eNose technology we were able to distinguish the patients with impaired kidney function from those with normal kidney function.
Lay abstract
Chronic kidney disease is a growing global problem. An interesting novelty in the disease diagnostics are devices called electronic noses, which detect chemical compounds produced by the body metabolism and thus form a specific smell print of which diseases or other processes of the body can be detected. We analyzed urine of kidney patients with an electronic nose to discriminate those with a poor kidney function from the ones with a relatively normal kidney function. This study indicates that chronic kidney disease can in fact be smelled from urine samples.
Author contributions
E Jokiniitty performed study planning, data analysis, manuscript drafting and manuscript review. L Hokkinen performed study planning, data analysis, manuscript drafting and manuscript review. P Kumpulainen performed data analysis, manuscript drafting and manuscript review. Y Leskinen performed collection of the material, manuscript drafting and manuscript review. T Lehtimäki performed study planning, funding, manuscript drafting and manuscript review. N Oksala performed study planning, funding, data analysis, manuscript drafting and manuscript review. A Roine performed study planning, funding, data analysis, manuscript drafting and manuscript review.
Acknowledgements
The authors want to thank medical laboratory technologist U Kala for assistance in the laboratory analysis phase of the study.
Financial & competing interests disclosure
This study was financially supported by the Academy of Finland, grants 322098, 286284 (for T Lehtimäki); Competitive State Research Financing of the Expert Responsibility Area of Tampere University Hospitals, grant X51001 (for T Lehtimäki) and grants 9s045, 151B03, 9T044, 9U042, 150618, 9V044, 9X040, 9AA057; Finnish Foundation for Cardiovascular Research; Finnish Cultural Foundation; Tampere Tuberculosis Foundation; Emil Aaltonen Foundation; Yrjö Johansson Foundation; Signe and Ane Gyllenberg Foundation; Diabetes Research Foundation of Finnish Diabetes Association; and Tampere University Supporting Foundation and Finnish Foundation for Technology promotion. N Oksala and A Roine are shareholders of Olfactomics Ltd, which commercializes technology for the detection of diseases by ion mobility spectrometry.The authors have no other relevant affiliations or financial involvement with any organization or entity with a financial interest in or financial conflict with the subject matter or materials discussed in the manuscript apart from those disclosed.
No writing assistance was utilized in the production of this manuscript.
Ethical conduct of research
The study was approved by the Tampere University Hospital Ethical Committee (code 97081) and Tampere City Ethical Committee for the control subjects. All the study subjects gave an informed consent before their examination and biological sample collection.