5,014
Views
79
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Brief Report

Post-traumatic stress disorder and declarative memory functioning: a review

Trastorno por estrés postraumático y funcionamiento de la memoria declarativa: una revisión

Etat de stress post-traumatique et fonctionnement de la mémoire déclarative

Pages 346-351 | Published online: 01 Apr 2022

Abstract

Declarative memory dysfunction is associated with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). This paper reviews this literature and presents two frameworks to explain the nature of this dysfunction: that memory deficits are a product of neurobiological abnormalities caused by PTSD andlor that pre-existing memory deficits serve as a risk factor for the development of PTSD following trauma exposure. Brain regions implicated in declarative memory deficits include the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex, and imaging and biochemistry studies as they relate to memory dysfunction are described. Prospective and twin studies provide support for a risk factor model.

La disfunción de la memoria declarativa se asocia con el trastorno por estrés postraumático (TEPT), Este artículo revisa la literatura y presenta dos propuestas para explicar la naturaleza de esta disfunción: que los déficit de memoria son producto de anormalidades causadas por el TEPT ylo que los déficit de memoria preexistentes constituyen un factor de riesgo para el desarrollo de un TEPT a continuación de la exposición a un trauma. El hipocampo y la corteza prefrontal son las regiones cerebrales que participan en los déficit de memoria declarativa. Se describen los estudios de imágenes y bioquímicos que se han realizado y la manera en que ellos se relacionan con la disfunción de memoria. Los estudios prospectivos y de gemelos proporcionan apoyo para un modelo de factor de riesgo.

L'état de stress post-traumatique (ESPT) s'associe à un trouble de la mémoire déclarative. Cet article analyse la littérature et présente deux grands axes pour expliquer la nature de ce trouble: tout d'abord, ces déficits mnésiques résultent d'anomalies dues à l'ESPT, de plus, la préexistence de déficits mnésiques jouent le rôle de facteur de risque de développement de l'ESPT après exposition à un traumatisme. L'hippocampe et le cortex préfrontal sont les régions cérébrales impliquées dans les déficits de mémoire déclarative. Nous décrivons ici les études de biochimie et d'imagerie liées au trouble mnésique, les études prospectives et de jumeaux servant de base à un modèle de facteur de risque.

Memory disturbances are predominant in the presentation of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and are part of the diagnostic criteria.Citation1 The re-experiencing symptom criteria of PTSD include intrusive memories of the traumatic event, and the avoidance symptom criteria include the inability to recall important aspects of the trauma. In addition, patients with PTSD often complain of experiencing everyday memory problems with emotionally neutral material, although these problems are not included in the diagnostic criteria. Documenting these types of memory deficits related to PTSD, and understanding the reasons underlying these deficits, has become a primary focus for researchers for the past, 20 years, in part because memory problems can lessen a patient's engagement in, and response to, treatment. In this review, literature on declarative memory deficits (defined as the ability to consciously remember and reproduce emotionally neutral material) related to PTSD will be summarized. Some of the inconsistencies and complexities in these findings, with a focus on addressing the potential influence of comorbid psychopathologies, will be addressed. Then, these findings will be explored through two frameworks: (i) that memory dysfunction is a result, of neurobiological abnormalities caused by trauma, and/or (ii) that, memory dysfunction serves as a pre-existing risk factor for the development of PTSD.

Declarative memory dysfunction in PTSD

Multiple studies have demonstrated verbal declarative memory deficits related to PTSD, in samples of adult patients with PTSD related to combat,Citation2-Citation9 childhood abuse,Citation10-Citation11 rape,Citation12 political violence,Citation13 and the Holocaust.Citation14-Citation15

Studies have employed a variety of memory measures, including list-learning tasks such as the California Verbal Learning Test and the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test; paired associates learning, from the Wechsler Memory Scale (WM'S); and narrative recall, such as the Logical Memory subtest of the WMS. Visual memory impairments appear to be less pronounced than verbal memory impairments.Citation16 Fewer studies have examined neuropsychological functioning in children with PTSD. There is some evidence of verbal memory deficits in samples of children exposed to intimate partner violence,Citation17 motor vehicle accidents,Citation18 and physical and sexual abuse.Citation19

There are some exceptions to this fairly robust literature, with some studies failing to find memory impairments related to PTSD.Citation20Citation26 Conflicting methodologies across studies might, account, for these inconsistencies; the majority of studies examining memory in PTSD employ small sample sizes and a variety of instruments used to assess memory. In addition, confounds such as comorbid psychiatric conditions complicate interpretation of findings. Meta-analysis is the most useful method to pool the results of individual studies, weight them for sample size, and generate an overall effect size to test the hypothesis that PTSD is associated with verbal declarative memory deficits. A meta-analysis of adult, studies prior to 2006Citation27 showed a small-to-modcratc effect size for memory deficits in PTSD. The 27 studies reviewed examined both verbal and visual memory and produced larger effects for verbal memory. The studies included both traumaexposed and unexposed control groups with more pronounced differences occurring between PTSD patients and control groups not exposed to trauma. Similarly, Johnsen and Asbjensen,Citation28 in their recent meta-analysis, found a moderate effect size for verbal memory impairment, with stronger memory impairment in war veteran groups compared with civilian groups. The authors noted that the majority of studies reviewed included veterans from the Vietnam War with chronic, long-lasting PTSD. These findings could suggest that, the memory impairments were related in part, to illness duration.

It should be emphasized that overall, decrements in memory performance due to PTSD are subtle, with performance falling either in the low average range, or in the normal range yet significantly lower than controls. Still, the findings are clinically meaningful when they represent, a change in functioning before and after trauma.

A closer examination of the pattern of memory deficits reveals that PTSD most, significantly impacts the initial acquisition and learning phases of memory, as opposed to the retention phase. For example, when controlling for initial acquisition, several studies have failed to find PTSD-related deficits in delayed recall.Citation7-Citation8-Citation13-Citation17-Citation23-Citation24-Citation29 In Brewin et al'sCitation27 meta-analysis, there was not an effect of immediate versus delayed recall, suggesting that any loss of memory over time is more likely accounted for by difficulties in immediate recall.

Comorbidities

It is important, to establish that any memory deficits observed in patients with PTSD are related to PTSD and not to psychiatric conditions commonly comorbid with PTSD, particularly depression, substance use disorders, and traumatic brain injury. For example, Neylan et alCitation20 failed to find PTSD-related memory deficits when veterans with psychiatric comorbidities were excluded. Barrett et alCitation30 found that veterans with PTSD alone did not exhibit impairments in neurocognitive functioning, whereas veterans with PTSD and a concurrent, diagnosis of depression, anxiety, or substance abuse did. To further address the comorbidity issue, researchers have matched PTSD and control subjects on comorbidity status,Citation2, Citation11, Citation12 statistically controlled for alcohol use or depression,Citation6 or examined subgroups with and without comorbid disordersCitation8 and continued to find PTSD-related neuropsychological deficits. Our groupCitation9 systematically examined the independent, and interactive contributions of PTSD and alcohol abuse history using a four-group design and found verbal memory deficits specific to PTSD.

The majority of neuropsychological studies with patients with PTSD excluded subjects with traumatic brain injury (TBI), which could represent a confound as it is also associated with memory deficits and commonly comorbid with PTSD. In their meta-analysis, Brewin et alCitation27 determined that a confounding effect of a history of head injury is not likely: studies reviewed that excluded subjects with head injury actually showed larger effect sizes for memory impairments than did studies that, failed to state whether they excluded subjects with head injury. A current focus of PTSD research is to examine independent and interactive effects of PTSD and 1131 on neurocognitive functioning and to attempt to distinguish patterns of impairment between the two disorders. This is challenging, as the diagnosis of mild TBI cannot be easily made when PTSD is present as clinicians are unsure of the cause of many of the cognitive symptoms.

Memory and PTSD frameworks

There are two primary frameworks for understanding memory impairment in PTSD. The first posits that memory deficits are a product of neurobiological abnormalities caused by PTSD. The second framework posits that preexisting memory deficits serve as a risk factor for the development of PTSD following trauma exposure. Each model represents either end of the nature vs nurture paradigm - either that the environment impacts neurobiology or that, genetics influence one's predisposition to PTSD.

Neurobiological abnormalities in PTSD

Researchers have established multiple neurobiological systems and structural and functional abnormalities involved in PTSD.Citation31-Citation32 Here, key systems and structures and their relationship to declarative memory will be briefly summarized. Memory deficits appear to be most related to abnormalities in the hippocampus and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, and the prefrontal cortex and catecholamine system.

Over 15 years of PTSD research has focused on the role of the hippocampus, a brain area particularly sensitive to the effects of stress. Studies showing glucocorticoid toxicity in the hippocampus and memory dysfunction in animals under stressCitation33-Citation34 led to the hypothesis that severe stress, in particular traumatic stress, may result in similar changes in humans. Meta-analysesCitation35, Citation36 of adults with PTSD reveal smaller hippocampal volume in both the left and right sides. Functional imaging studies have demonstrated abnormal cerebral blood flow to the hippocampusCitation37, Citation38 during declarative memory tasks. Other studies have found reductions in N-acctyl aspartate (NAA), a marker of neuronal integrity.Citation39, Citation40 In addition, dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is associated with PTSD.Citation41-Citation45

In contrast, meta-analysisCitation36 did not, demonstrate hippocampal volume loss in children. Two possible explanations are that hippocampal alterations associated with PTSD may change over time or that there may be more sensitive markers of hippocampal pathology than volume loss with children. There is some limited evidence pointing to hippocampal dysfunction in children. Carrion and colleaguesCitation46 found that PTSD symptoms and Cortisol levels predicted hippocampal reduction over time. And in a functional imaging study, this groupCitation47 found decreased activity in the hippocampus during a verbal memory task in children with PTSD symptoms from interpersonal trauma.

The relationship between declarative memory and hippocampal functioning is well established within studies of elderly subjects, both with and without dementia.Citation48-Citation51 Given that line of research, as well as repeated documentation of both declarative memory deficits and hippocampal abnormalities in PTSD, it would follow that there would be a correlation between hippocampal dysfunction and declarative memory performance in individuals with PTSD. However, few studies have examined and demonstrated this relationship. Two research studies have found expected correlations between hippocampal volume loss and declarative memory performance,Citation52, Citation53 whereas three other studies have not.Citation54-Citation56

Although the hippocampus was the early focus of research in understanding declarative memory deficits related to FFSD, the discrepant findings described above suggest that it, should not, be the only focus. To summarize, first, research does not consistently show a correlation between declarative memory performance and hippocampal function. Second, there is limited evidence showing hippocampal dysfunction in children. Finally, the pattern of memory impairments in PTSD demonstrates that PTSD is less associated with problems with retention, a process mediated by the hippocampus, and much more associated with problems with acquisition and learning, processes more associated with prefrontal system dysfunction.Citation57

There are a number of studies further elucidating the impact of PTSD on the prefrontal cortex (PFC). Stress exposure releases glucocorticoids and catecholamines in the PFC,Citation58, Citation59 which impair functions mediated by the PFC including working memory, executive function, and the regulation of behavior and emotion.Citation60 Deficits in these areas are also associated with PTSD.Citation5-Citation8, Citation12, Citation61-Citation65 Several magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies have reported decreased frontal cortex volume in PTSDCitation66-Citation68 and decreased volume in medial prefrontal regions, namely the anterior cingulate and subcallosal cortex.Citation69-Citation72 A functional imaging study revealed underactivation of the frontal cortex during a paired-associates learning task in patients with PTSD.Citation73 Particularly in children, findings of frontal dysfunction are more robust than findings of hippocampal dysfunction.Citation66, Citation67, Citation74

Cognitive risk and protective factors in PTSD

PTSD is a unique psychiatric disorder in that it is the result of a traumatic life event. As such, it would be assumed that all neuropsychological and neurobiological abnormalities associated with PTSD are also caused by that event. However, prospective and twin studies offer compelling support, for the model that, pre-existing memory and learning deficits, and related hippocampal dysfunction, increase one's vulnerability to developing PTSD. Gibertson et alCitation75 studied monozygotic twin pairs who were discordant for combat exposure and found that the identical co-twins of combat veterans with PTSD, who had not, experienced combat exposure or PTSD themselves, showed similar deficits in verbal memory. In addition, both combat, veterans with PTSD and their co-twins exhibited smaller hippocampi,Citation76 suggesting that a smaller hippocampus and memory impairments in PTSD represent a pre-existing, genetic factor. Further support for this framework has come from a recent longitudinal study, where researchers examined the extent, to which poorer neurocognitive functioning prior to a major natural disaster predicted the development, of PTSD symptoms.Citation77 Development of PTSD symptoms was inversely associated with word recall, as well as working memory, processing speed, and verbal intelligence performance assessed pretrauma.

Conclusions

It is likely that memory dysfunction is both a pre-existing risk factor for the development of PTSD as well as s a consequence of the disorder. Vasterling and BraileyCitation78 propose a potential “downward spiral” (p 192) in which pre-existing neurocognitive deficits lead to an increased risk of PTSD through ineffective coping or fewer s resources, and the development of PTSD, in turn, engenders greater cognitive dysfunction. Regardless of the origin of memory deficits, their effects on daily functioning and treatment, are of primary concern. Memory problems reduce the resources available to PTSD patients when ) coping with life's demands and more specifically, can impact patients' ability to engage in and respond to psychological treatment. Indeed, a recent study found that verbal memory impairment predicted poorer outcome in patients receiving cognitive behavioral therapy for PTSD.Citation79 To address this concern, future research should examine the effects of cognitive rehabilitation training on neuropsychological deficits related to PTSD.

REFERENCES

  • American Psychiatrie Association.Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association;1994
  • BremnerJD.ScottTM.DelaneyRC.et al.Deficits in short-term memory in post-traumatic stress disorder.Am J Psychiatry.1993150101510198317569
  • GolierJ.YehudaR.CornblattB.et al.Sustained attention in combat related posttraumatic stress disorder,integr Physiol Behav Sci.19973252619105914
  • YehudaR.KeefeRS.HarveyPD.et al.Learning and memory in combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder.Am J Psychiatry.19951521371397802106
  • UddoM.VasterlingJJ.BraileyK.et al.Memory and attention in posttraumatic stress disorder.J Psychopathol Behav Assess.1993154352
  • GilbertsonMW.GurvitsTV.LaskoNB.et al.Multivariate assessment of explicit memory function in combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder.J Trauma Stress.20011441342011469166
  • VasterlingJJ.BraileyK.ConstansJ. I.et al.Attention and memory dysfunction in posttraumatic stress disorder.Neuropsychology.1998121251339460740
  • VasterlingJJ.DukeLM.BraileyK.et al.Attention, learning, and memory performance and intellectual resources in Vietnam veterans: PTSD and no disorder comparisons.Neuropsychology.20021651411853357
  • SamuelsonKW.NeylanT.LenociM.et al.Neuropsychological functioning in posttraumatic stress disorder.Neuropsychology.20062071672617100516
  • BremnerJD.VermettenE.NafzalN.et al.Deficits in verbal declarative memory function in women with childhood sexual abuse-related posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD).J Nerv Ment Dis.200419264364915457106
  • BremnerJD.RandallPR.CapelliS.et al.Deficits in short-term memory in adult survivors of childhood abuse.Psychiatry Res.199559971078771224
  • JenkinsMA.LanglaisPJ.DelisD.et al.Learning and memory in rape victims with posttraumatic stress disorder.Am J Psychiatry.19981552782799464211
  • JohnsenGE.AsbjornsenAE.Verbal learning and memory impairments in posttraumatic stress disorder: the role of encoding strategies.Psychiatry Res.2009165687719058857
  • GolierJA.YehudaR.LupienSJ.et al.Memory performance in Holocaust survivors with posttraumatic stress disorder.Am J Psychiatry.20021591682168812359673
  • YehudaR.GolierJA.HarveyPD.et al.Relationship between Cortisol and age-related memory impairments in Holocaust survivors with PTSD.Psychoneuroendocrinology.20053067868715854784
  • DanckwertsA.LeathernJ.Questioning the link between PTSD and cognitive dysfunction.Neuropsychol Rev.20031322123515000227
  • SamuelsonK.KruegerC.BurnettC.Wilson.C.Neuropsychological functioning in children with posttraumatic stress disorder.Child Neuropsychol.20101611913319787496
  • MoradiAR.DoostHT.TaghaviMR.et al.Everyday memory deficits in children and adolescents with PTSD: performance on the Rivermead Behavioural Memory test.J Child Psychol Psychiatry.19994035736110190337
  • YasikL.SaighP.Oberfield.R.HalamandarisP.Posttraumatic stress disorder: memory and learning performance in children and adolescents.Bio Psychiatry.20076138238816920073
  • NeylanT.LenociM.RothlindJ.et al.Attention, learning, and memory in posttraumatic stress disorder.J Trauma Stress.200417414615027792
  • Kivling-BodenG.SundbomE.Cognitive abilities related to post-traumatic symptoms among refugees from the former Yugoslavia in psychiatric treatment.Nordic J Psychiatry.200357191198
  • PedersonCL.MaurerSH.KaminskiPL.et al.Hippocampal volume and memory performance in a community-based sample of women with posttraumatic stress disorder secondary to child abuse.J Trauma Stress.200417371740
  • SteinMB.HannaC.VaerumV.KoverolaC.Memory functioning in adult women traumatized by childhood sexual abuse.J Trauma Stress.19991252753410467560
  • SteinM.KennedyC.TwamleyE.Neuropsychological function in female victims of intimate partner violence with and without posttraumatic stress disorder.Biol Psychiatry.2002521079108812460691
  • ZalewskiC.ThompsonW.GottesmanI.Comparison of neuropsychological test performance in PTSD, generalized anxiety disorder, and control Vietnam veterans.Assessment.199411331429465143
  • SullivanK.KrengelM.ProctorS.et al.Cognitive functioning in treatment-seeking Gulf War veterans: pyridositmine bromide use and PTSD.J Psychopathol Behav Assess.20103251552821116455
  • BrewinCR.KleinerJS.VasterlingJJ.FieldAP.Memory for emotionally neutral information in posttraumatic stress disorder: a meta-analytic investigation.J Abnorm Psychol.200711644846317696700
  • JohnsenGE.AsbjornsenAE.Consistent impaired verbal memory in PTSD: a meta-analysis.J Affect Disord .2008111748218377999
  • VasterlingJJ.BraileyK.SutkerB.Olfactory identification in combatrelated posttraumatic stress disorder.J Trauma Stress.20001324125310838673
  • BarrettDH.GreenML.MorrisR.et al.Cognitive functioning and posttraumatic stress disorder.Am J Psychiatry.1996153149214948890689
  • SouthwickS.RasmussonA.BarronJ.ArnstenA.Neurobiological and neurocognitive alterations in PTSD: a focus on norepinephrine, serotonin, and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. In: Vasterling J, Brewin C, eds.Neuropsychology of PTSD: Biological, Cognitive, and Clinical Perspectives. New York, NY: Guilford Press;2005178207
  • ShinL.RauchS.PittmanR.Structural and functional anatomy of PTSD: findings from neuroimaging research. In: Vasterling J, Brewin C, eds.Neuropsychology of PTSD: Biological, Cognitive, and Clinical Perspectives. New York, NY: Guilford Press;2005178207
  • LuineV.VillagesM.MartinexC.et al.Repeated stress causes reversible impairments of spatial memory performance.Brain Res.19946391671708180832
  • DiamondDM.FleshnerM.IngersollN.et al.Psychological stress impairs spatial working memory: relevance to electrophysiological studies of hippocampal function.Behav Neurosci.19961106616728864259
  • KarlA.SchaeferM.MaltaL.DorfelD.RohlederN.WernerA.A metaanalysis of structural brain abnormalities in PTSD.Neurosci Biobehav Rev.2006301004103116730374
  • KitayamaN.VaccarinoV.KutnerM.WeissP.BremnerJD.Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) measurement of hippocampal volume in posttraumatic stress disorder: a meta-analysis.J Affect Disord.200588798616033700
  • ShinLM.ShinPS.HeckersS.et al.Hippocampal function in posttraumatic stress disorder.Hippocampus.20041429230015132428
  • BremnerJD.VythilingamE.VermettenE.et al.MRI and PET study of deficits in hippocampal structure and function in women with childhood sexual abuse and posttraumatic stress disorder.Am J Psychiatry.200316092493212727697
  • SchuffN.NeylanT.LenociM.et al.Decreased hippocampal N-acetylaspartate in the absence of atrophy in posttraumatic stress disorder.Bio Psychiatry.20015095295911750891
  • FreemanT.CardwellD. Karson C, Komoroski R. In vivo proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy of the medial temporal lobes of subjects with combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder.Mag Res Med.1998406671
  • DelahantyDL.RaimondeAJ.SpoonsterE.et al.Injury severity, prior trauma history, urinary Cortisol levels, and acute PTSD in motor vehicle accident victims.J Anxiety Disord.20031714916412614659
  • YehudaR.KahanaB.Binder-BrynesK.et al.Low urinary Cortisol excretion in holocaust survivors with posttraumatic stress disorder.Am J Psychiatry.19951529829867793468
  • YehudaR.TeicherMH.LevengoodRA.et al.Orcadian regulation of basal Cortisol elevations in posttraumatic stress disorder. AnnNY Acad Sci.1994378380
  • YehudaR.TeicherMH.TrestmanRL.et al.Cortisol regulation in posttraumatic stress disorder and major depression: a chronobiological analysis.Biol Psychiatry.19964079888793040
  • BakerDB.WestSA.NicholsonWE.et al.Serial CSF corticotropin-releasing hormone levels and adrenocortical activity in combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder.Am J Psychiatry.199915658558810200738
  • CarrionV.WeemsC.ReissA.Stress predicts brain changes in children: a pilot longitudinal study on youth stress, posttraumatic stress disorder, and the hippocampus.Pediatrics.200711950951617332204
  • CarrionV.HaasB.GarrettA.SongS.ReissAL.Reduced hippocampal activity in youth with posttraumatic stress symptoms: an FMRI study.J Pediatric Psychology.201035559569
  • LaaksoMP.SoininenH.PartanenK.et al.Volumes of hippocampus, amygdale and frontal lobes in the MRI-based diagnosis of early Alzheimer's disease: correlation with memory functions .J Neural Transm: Parkinson's Disease and Dementia Section.199517386
  • SoininenH.PartanenK.PitkanenA. et al. Volumetric MRI analysis of the amygdale and the hippocampus in subjects with age-associated memory impairment: correlation to visual and verbal memory.Neurology.199444166016687936293
  • ConvitA.de LeonMJ.TarshishC.et al.Hippocampal volume losses in minimally impaired elderly.Lancet.1995345266XX7823753
  • ZimmermanM.PanJW.HetheringtonHP.et al.Hippocampal neurochemistry, neuromorphometry, and verbal memory in nondemented older adults.Neurology.2008701594160018367703
  • BremnerJD.RandallP.ScottTM.et al.MRI-based measurement of hippocampal volume in patients with combat- related posttraumatic stress disorder.Am J Psychiatry.19951529739817793467
  • VythilingamM.LuckebaughD.LamT.et al.Smaller head of the hippocampus in Gulf War-related posttraumatic stress disorder.Psychiatry Res.2005139899915967648
  • WoodwardS.KaloupekD.GrandeL.et al.Hippocampal volume and declarative memory function in combat-related PTSD.J int Neuropsychol Soc.20091583083919703322
  • BremnerJD.RandallP.VermettenE.et al.Magnetic resonance imaging-based measurement of hippocampal volume in posttraumatic stress disorder related to childhood physical and sexual abuse-a preliminary report.Biol Psychiatry.19974123328988792
  • NakanoT.WennerM.InagakiM.et al.Relationship between distressing cancer-related recollections and hippocampal volume in cancer survivors.Am J Psychiatry.20021592087209312450961
  • ShimamuraAP.Memory and frontal lobe function. In: Gazzaniga MS, ed.The Cognitive Neurosciences. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press;1996803814
  • TheirryAM.TassinJP.BlancG.GlowinskyJ.Selective activation of the mesocortlcal DA system by stress.Nature.1976263242244958479
  • GoldsteinLE.RasmussonAM.BunneyBS.RothRH.Role of the amygdala in the coordination of behavioral, neuroendocrine, and prefrontal cortical monoamine responses to psychological stress in the rat.J Neurosci.199616478747988764665
  • ArnstenAF.Through the looking glass: differential noradrenergic modulation of prefrontal cortical function.Neuronal Plasticity.20007133146
  • BrandesD.Ben-SchacharG.GilboaA.et al.PTSD symptoms and cognitive performance in recent trauma survivors.Psychiatry Res.200211023123812127473
  • BeersSR.De BellisMD.Neuropsychological function in children with maltreatment-related posttraumatic stress disorder.Am J Psychiatry.200215948348611870018
  • KoenenKC.DriverKL.Oscar-BermanM.et al.Measures of prefrontal system dysfunction in posttraumatic stress disorder.Brain Cogn.2001456478
  • EhringT.QuackD.Emotion regulation difficulties in trauma survivors: the role of trauma type and PTSD symptom severity.Behav Ther.20104158759821035621
  • TullMT.BarrettHM.McMillanES.RoernerL.A preliminary investigation of the relationship between emotion regulation difficulties and posttraumatic stress symptoms.Behav Ther.20073830331317697854
  • De BellisM.Keshavan.M.ShifflettH.et al.Brain structures in pediatric maltreatment-related post-traumatic stress disorder: a sociodemographically matched study.Biol Psychiatry.2002521066107812460690
  • CarrionV.WeemsC.EliezS.et al.Attenuation of frontal asymmetry in pediatric posttraumatic stress disorder.Bio Psychiatry.20015094395111750890
  • Fennema-NotestineC.SteinM.KennedyC.et al.Brain morphometry in female victims of intimate partner violence with and without posttraumatic stress disorder.Biol Psychiatry.2002521089110112460692
  • RauchSL.ShinLM.SegalE.et al.Selectively reduced regional cortical volumes in post-traumatic stress disorder.Neuroreport.20031491391612802174
  • YamasueH.KasaiK.IwanamiA.et al.Voxel-based analysis of MRI reveals anterior cingulate gray-matter volume reduction in posttraumatic stress disorder due to terrorism.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA.20031009039904312853571
  • WoodwardSH.KaloupekDG.StreetCC.et al.Decreased anterior cingulate volume in combat-related PTSD.Biol Psychiatry.20065958258716165099
  • RogersMA.YamasueH.AbeO.et al.Smaller amygdale volume and reduced anterior cingulated gray matter density associated with history of post-traumatic stress disorder.Psychiatry Res.200917421021619914045
  • GeuzeE.VermettenE.RufM.et al.Neural correlates of associative learning and memory in veterans in posttraumatic stress disorder.J Psychiatr Res.20084265966917698081
  • De BellisM.KeshavanM.SpencerS.HallJ.N- Acetylaspartate concentration in the anterior cingulate of maltreated children and adolescents with PTSD.Am J Psychiatry.20001571175117710873933
  • GilbertsonM.PaulusL.WillistonS.et al.Neurocognitive function in monozygotic twins discordant for combat exposure: Relationship to posttraumatic stress disorder.J Abnorm Psychol.20061148449516866589
  • GilbertsonM.ShentonM.CiszewskiA.et al.Smaller hippocampal volume predicts pathologic vulnerability to psychological trauma.Nat Neurosci.200251242124712379862
  • ParslowR.JornA.Pretrauma and posttrauma neurocognitive functioning and PTSD symptoms in a community sample of young adults.Am J Psychiatry.200716450951517329477
  • VasterlingJ.BraileyK.Neuropsychological findings in adults with PTSD. In: Vasterling J, Brewin C, eds.Neuropsychology of PTSD: Biological, Cognitive, and Clinical Perspectives. New York, NY: Guilford Press;2005178207
  • WildJ.GurR.Verbal memory and treatment response in post-traumatic stress disorder.Br J Psychiatry.200819325425518757989