Abstract
The effect of brown marine algae (BMA; Sargassum dentifebium) as alternative feed source for pullets was studied in three processed and at three concentrations in the pullets from 14-42 weeks. The processing forms were sundried brown marine algae (SBMA), sundried and boiled brown marine algae (BBMA) and sundried and autoclaved brown marine algae (ABMA). The concentrations of BMA were 2%, 4% and 6% that composed 10 treatments along with control. Each treatment was replicated 6 times using 30 pullets per treatment. Different criteria on pullets and eggs, including feed intake, body weight, feed conversion efficiency, laying rate and egg mass and quality were studied. Results indicated that BMA could be used up to 6% in the pullets diets from 14 to 42 weeks without adverse effects (P≥0.05) on sexual maturity (139-142 days), laying rate (80.7-87.9%), egg mass (44.99-51.86 g/hen/day), feed conversion ratio (2.468-2.868 kg feed/kg egg) and Haugh unit (82.9-90.6) and shell percentage (8.61-9.87%). Furthermore, egg yolk color and calcium content in eggshell were improved (P≤0.05) by 12.31% and 9.1%, respectively.
Introduction
Research for alternative feed resource during the last decade has became essentially important due to the shortage of feedstuffs for animal feeding as some ingredients as corn and soybean meal were used for biofuel production (Attia et al., Citation2003; Citation2008; Al-Harthi et al., Citation2011). In the tropical areas, the problem is even more serious than in other parts of the world as feed resources availability for animal production is low (Al-Harthi et al., Citation2009; Al-Saffar et al., Citation2012). Utilization of algae as valuable feed resource seems a possible alternative. Algae are rich source of trace elements, proteins, lipids, polysaccharides, vitamins, enzymes (Rimber, Citation2007; Al-Harthi and El-Deek, Citation2011; Citation2012) and have also an antimicrobial activity (Rizvi and Shameel, Citation2004; Abdel-Wahab et al., Citation2006; Abd El-Baky et al., Citation2008).
The current algae world production (30-50%) is sold for use in animal feed and feed additives (Yamaguchi, Citation1997; Becker, Citation2004). Limited research has been done on algae as feed source that has recommended its feeding safely between 5-10% and an adverse effect may be excepted when using it in high concentrations for long periods (El-Harthi and El-Deek, Citation2012). However, pigmentation of poultry products (Becker, Citation2004; Al-Harthi and El-Deek, Citation2011) and n-3 fatty acids (Schiavone et al., Citation2007; Al-Harthi and El-Deek, Citation2012) could be increased by algae addition. Al-Harthi and El-Deek (Citation2011) and El-Deek et al. (Citation2011) have reported that brown marine algae (BMA) may be fed to laying hens and broiler chicks up to 3% without adverse effects on productive performance. Some studies (Yoshie et al., Citation1994; Al-Harthi and El-Deek, Citation2011; Al-Harthi et al., Citation2010; Citation2011; El-Deek et al., Citation2011) have reported that the quality and feeding value of feedstuffs may be improved by autoclaving, boiling in water and freezing and that result in increasing nutrient availability and thus animal performance.
This study aimed to investigate the effects of various processed forms and different dietary concentrations of brown marine algae (Sargassum dentifebium) on sexual maturity and performance of pullets during pre-laying and early laying periods, 14-42 weeks of age.
Materials and methods
Brown marine algae source
This work was done in the Agriculture Research Station at the Hada Al-Sham area, Faculty of Meteorology, Environment and Arid Land Agriculture, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
Collection and processing of brown marine algae
Algae were harvested from the red sea and brought to the Agriculture Research Station, then sundried at an average temperature of 40°C with continuous stirring until dry. Algae were crushed to dry powder of 0.5 mm size and then stored in airtight plastic bags, until use in diet formulation.
Preparation of treatments
A part of the sundried brown marine algae (SBMA) was boiled in a cooking unit (1:4, algae:water, w:w) for 20 min with stirring, then transferred to big trays and kept for 36 h in the drying unit and dried algae were then ground again to prepare sundried and boiled brown marine algae (BBMA). A further part of SBMA was processed in autoclave under 115 bar/in2 for 15 min to prepare sundried and autoclaved brown marine algae (ABMA).
Birds and experimental design
A total of 300, 14-week-old Hy-line pullets were randomly distributed among 10 treatments (30 hens/treatment; 6 replicates of 5 pullets/group). During the pre-laying (14-20 weeks of age) and laying (21-42 weeks of age) periods, the control group fed diets without algae addition. The three SBMA groups fed the sundried algae diet supplemented, respectively at 2, 4 and 6%. The same proportions of algae were used to obtain the three BBMA and the three ABMA groups. All the diets were formulated according to NRC (Citation1994). The ingredients of all diets were similar and the inclusion of Algae induced a re-formulation to obtain similar chemical-nutritional values ( and ). Chemical analyses of the diets were according to AOAC (Citation2004). Mash feed and water were provided ad libitum throughout the experimental period. Pullets were housed in individual cages (520 cm2/hen) in environmental controlled house and illuminated with 14:10 light dark cycle. Vaccination and medical programs were done according to the different ages under veterinarian supervision.
Procedure for data collection
Individual body weight was recorded at week 14 and 42 of age as well as age at sexual maturity (10% laying rate). Laying rate (egg number/hen/d), egg weight (g/hen/day), egg mass and feed intake (g/hen/d) were measured daily for each replicate. Feed conversion ratio was calculated as the amount of feed required to produce 1 g of egg. Survival rate (%) was calculated as number of live hens at the end of the experiment divided by number of hens at start of the experiment. At week 42 of age, six hens per treatment were slaughtered after being fasted overnight to obtain inner organs. They were weighed and their relative weights to live body weight were recorded.
At 28, 35 and 42 weeks of age, 20 eggs per treatment were collected for determination of egg and shell quality (Attia et al., Citation1994; Attia et al., Citation2012). The collected eggs were divided into two portions of 10 eggs each. The 1st group was used for determination of the quality of fresh eggs (on the same day of laying), while the other portion (10 eggs) was stored in the refrigerator at 5°C for 21 days, after which it was broken for egg quality evaluation. Shells of the fresh eggs (six per treatment) were used for determination of Ca, Na and K using an automatic absorption spectrophotometer (Model YL AAS-8000) according to AOAC (Citation2004). Phosphorus was determined by Flame photometry according to Davis et al. (Citation1964).
The mineral contents of egg shell were expressed as a percent of shell ash content. Shell percentage was expressed as a percentage of eggs weight, while shell dry matter was expressed as a percentage of shell weight.
Statistical analysis
Data were analyzed using the GLM procedure of SAS (Citation2001) for factorial analyses using the following:
yijk= μ + Ai+ βj + (Aβ)ij+eijk
where
μ, general mean;
Ai, effect of BMA level;
βj, effect of preparing ways;
(Aβ)ij, interaction between BMA level and dietary preparing ways;
eijk: random error.
Before analysis, all percentages were subjected to logarithmic transformation (log10 x + 1) to normalize data distribution. Mean difference at P≤0.05 was tested using Duncan’s New Multiple Range Test (Duncan, Citation1955).
Results and discussion
Productive traits and sexual maturity
There was no significant effect of BMA concentration and/or preparing way on BW, BWG, age at sexual maturity and feed intake of pullets (). This indicated that using BMA up to 6% had no negative effect on BW and sexual development and this was confirmed by the lack of effect on feed intake during 14-20 weeks of age, too.
Laying rate, egg weight, feed intake and FCR from weeks 21 to 42 of age were also not significantly affected by preparing way and concentration of BMA (). However, egg mass was significantly greater in hens fed 2% BMA in respect of hens fed 4%.
In addition, there was a significant interaction between preparing way and concentration of BMA on only egg weight and egg mass. Sundried and autoclaved algae did not change egg weight due to increase of inclusion level, but boiled algae increased (P≤0.01) the egg weight at 6% in respect of 2%. However, both values were not different from the control group. When boiled or autoclaved algae were used, the 4% of inclusion level reduced (P≤0.01) egg mass more than 2%, and together 2% and 6%, respectively. Sundried algae at 6% reduced (P≤0.01) egg mass than only the 4% group; in addition, SBMA at 6% showed a lower egg mass than the control group.
The lack of significant effect of preparing way on productive performance of pullets from weeks 21 to 42 of age indicated that sundried was adequate way for preparing BMA for pullets’ diets. Similar results were reported by Yoshie et al. (Citation1994) and Al-Harthi and El-Deek (Citation2011, Citation2012). However, autoclaving significantly improved laying performance in hens fed dried whole eggs than boiling and/or freezing (Al-Harthi et al., Citation2010, Citation2011). These discrepancies of the effect of preparing way on nutritive values of feedstuffs could be attributed to the nature of feedstuffs and its anti-nutritional factors. Al-Harthi and El-Deek (Citation2012) showed that preparing way such as boiling or autoclaving had a small effect on neutral detergent fibre (27.95-30.21%), acid detergent fibre (21.18-23.54%), hemicellulose (6.41-7.73%) and tannins (0.733-0.815 mg/gm protein) of BMA. Thus, the positive effect of autoclaving could be attributed to its effect on microorganisms of feed.
As noted, no significant negative impact on the productive performance of pullets during the pre-laying and laying periods BMA was fed up to 6%. The lack of the effect of BMA concentration on most of the productive traits except, greatest egg mass at 2%, is in agreement with those reported by Venkataraman et al. (Citation1994) and Schaivone et al. (2007) with chickens when fed algae up to 10%. Survival rate ranged from 94 to 100% and differences among different experimental groups were not significant (not shown). This indicated that level of BMA up to 6% did not negatively affect on survival of pullets from 14 to 42 weeks of age. It is important to mention that algae have an antimicrobial activity which might positively affect animal health (Rizvi and Shameel, Citation2004; Abdel-Wahab et al., Citation2006; Abd El-Baky et al., Citation2008). In addition, the mineral contents of BMA used in this study were already reported by Al-Harthi and El-Deek (Citation2012) whose results were Ca 0.126-0.144%, (P 0.239-0.255%, Na 4.01-4.05%, Zn 215-345 ppm, Mn 216-270 ppm, I 12.72-13.51 ppm, Fe 11.2-11.5 ppm and Cu 4.6-4.81 ppm. In addition, the heavy metals of BMA are in acceptable range (Pb 0.001 to 0.002 ppm), while no Cd was detected in the samples. The low level of heavy metals in the BMA samples indicted that BMA could be used safely in laying hen diets without deleterious effects on laying hens health and quality of eggs for human consumption.
Quality of fresh and stored eggs
Generally, there was no significant negative effect of preparing ways, levels of BMA and their interactions on quality of fresh () and stored eggs () and mineral content in eggshell (). Furthermore, a significant (P≤0.01) increase in yolk colour () and shell Ca () were observed when 2%, 4% and 6% BMA were included in pullets’ diets. This indicated a beneficial effect of BMA as a source of pigmentation (lutein and zeaxanthin) and mineral (Abd El-Baky et al., Citation2008; Al-Harthi and El-Deek, Citation2011).
Reproductive and inner organs
Different concentrations of BMA prepared by different ways showed no significant effect on the reproductive () and inner organs () of pullets at 42 weeks of age except for number of follicles, which were significantly (P≤0.05) greater in pullets of the SBMA than those of the ABMA. In addition, pullets of 2% and 4% BMA indicated greater number of follicles than those of the control diet. Liver percentage was significantly greater in pullets of the ABMA than those of the SBMA. Also, gizzard percentage was significantly heavier on pullets fed 2% and 6% of BMA than those fed 0% and 4% of BMA. However, no effect was observed on the intestinal measurements (), and no adverse effects on nutrient utilization was noted (). Similar results were reported by Al-Harthi et al. (Citation2011). However, in literature lower gizzard percent was associated with lower feed digestibility and thus less nutrient availabilities (Hetland et al., Citation2003; Biggs and Parsons, Citation2009).
Conclusions
Sundried, boiled or autoclaved brown marine algae up to 6% could be included in the pullets’ diets from 14 to 42 weeks of age without adverse impacts on productive performance, sexual maturity, fresh and stored eggs quality, reproductive and inner organs. Furthermore, yolk colour and Ca content in eggs were improved.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to express his appreciation for the financial support (Research Project N. AR-27-69) provided by King AbdulAziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), Saudi Arabia.
Table 1. Composition of the pullets’ diets containing different levels of brown marine algae prepared by different ways fed during 14-20 weeks of age.
Table 2. Composition of the pullets’ diets containing different levels of brown marine algae prepared by different ways fed during 21-42 weeks of age.
Table 3. Effect of different preparing ways and concentrations of brown marine algae on productive performance of pullets during weeks 14-42 of age.
Table 4. Effect of different preparing ways and concentrations of brown marine algae on productive performance of pullets during weeks 21-42 of age.
Table 5. Effect of different preparing ways and concentrations of brown marine algae on quality of fresh eggs.
Table 6. Effect of different preparing ways and concentrations of brown marine algae on quality of stored eggs.
Table 7. Effect of different preparing ways and concentrations of brown marine algae on mineral contents of fresh eggshell.
Table 8. Effect of different preparing ways and concentrations of brown marine algae on reproductive organs.
Table 9. Effect of different preparing ways and concentrations of brown marine algae on inner organs.
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