2,525
Views
6
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

Breaking rules for good? How archivists manage privacy in large-scale digitisation projects

ORCID Icon
Pages 289-308 | Published online: 30 Jan 2019
 

ABSTRACT

Digital archives are a popular way for archivists to provide access to their important collections, but they also create more opportunities for private information within these collections to be disseminated widely and without consent. This is especially true of collections of the recent past, which often include materials and testimonies from living individuals. This paper draws on interview data collected from 13 archivists at four institutions that created digital archives of Civil Rights Movement-era materials. Despite clear professional obligations to protect individual privacy, the author found that archivists relied on open-access policies to justify their projects and digitisation labour itself.

Acknowledgements

This research was funded through a Top-Up Fellowship from the University of Wisconsin-Madison’s Robert F. and Jean E. Holtz Center for Science and Technology Studies. The author would also like to thank Dr Alan Rubel for his advice and encouragement while writing this paper, and Drs Kristin Eschenfelder, Rebekah Willett and Ethelene Whitmire for their helpful and insightful comments on early drafts of this paper.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Notes

1. Society of American Archivists (SAA), ‘SAA Core Values Statement and Code of Ethics’, 2011, available at <http://www2.archivists.org/statements/saa-core-values-statement-and-code-of-ethics>, accessed October 2016; Richard J Cox and David A Wallace (eds), Archives and the Public Good: Accountability and Records in Modern Society, Quorum Books, Westport, CT, 2002.

2. Waheed Hussain, ‘The Common Good’, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Edward N. Zalta (ed.), Spring 2018, available at <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2018/entries/common-good/>, accessed August 2018; Helen Nissenbaum, Privacy in Context: Technology, Policy, and the Integrity of Social Life, Stanford Law Books, Stanford, CA, 2010, pp. 86–7.

3. Hussain.

4. Bruce Douglass, ‘The Common Good and the Public Interest’, Political Theory, vol. 8, no. 1, 1980, p. 108, available at <https://www.jstor.org/stable/190769> accessed August 2018.

5. ibid., pp. 110–11; SI Benn, ‘“Interests” in Politics’, Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, vol. 60, 1960, p. 127, available at <https://www.jstor.org/stable/4544625>, accessed August 2018.

6. Heather MacNeil, Without Consent: The Ethics of Disclosing Personal Information in Public Archives, The Scarecrow Press, Inc., Metuchen, NJ, 1992, p. 147; Cox and Wallace, p. 11.

7. Kate Eichhorn, ‘Beyond Digitisation: A Case Study of Three Contemporary Feminist Collections’, Archives and Manuscripts, vol. 42, no. 3, 2014, p. 228; Carolyn Steedman, Dust: The Archive and Cultural History, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, NJ, 2002, p. 5.

8. Eichhorn, p. 228; Craig Gauld, ‘Democratising or Privileging: The Democratisation of Knowledge and the Role of the Archivist’, Archival Science, vol. 17, no. 3, 2017, p. 228.

9. MacNeil; Anne Gilliland and Judith A Wiener, ‘Digitizing and Providing Access to Privacy-Sensitive Historical Medical Resources: A Legal and Ethical Overview’, Journal of Electronic Resources in Medical Libraries, vol. 8, no. 4, 2011, pp. 382–403; Menzi L Behrnd-Klodt and Peter J Wosh (eds), Privacy & Confidentiality Perspectives: Archivists & Archival Records, Society of American Archivists, Chicago, IL, 2005.

10. SAA.

11. Yvette Hackett, ‘Preserving Digital History: Costs and Consequences’, in Cheryl Avery and Mona Holmlund (eds), Better off Forgetting? Essays on Archives, Public Policy, and Collective Memory, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 2010, pp. 124–39; Paul Conway, ‘Archival Quality and Long-Term Preservation: A Research Framework for Validating the Usefulness of Digital Surrogates’, Archival Science, vol. 11, nos. 3–4, 2011, pp. 293–309; Jackie M Dooley and Katherine Luce, ‘Taking our Pulse: The OCLC Research Survey of Special Collections and Archives’, 2010, available at <http://www.oclc.org/content/dam/research/publications/library/2010/2010-11.pdf>, accessed October 2016.

12. Brewster Kahle, ‘Universal Access to All Knowledge’, The American Archivist, vol. 70, no. 1, Spring/Summer 2007, pp. 23–31; Brewster Kahle and Ana Parejo Vadillo, ‘The Internet Archive: An Interview’, Interdisciplinary Studies in the Long Nineteenth Century, vol. 21, 2015; Andrew Richard Albanese, ‘Scan this Book! In the Race to Digitize the Public Domain, Is the Future of the Library at Stake? An Interview with the Open Content Alliance’s Brewster Kahle’, Library Journal, August 2007, pp. 32–5.

13. Dooley and Luce, p. 94.

14. Cokie G Anderson, Ethical Decision Making for Digital Libraries, Chandos Publishing, Oxford, 2006, pp. 19–29, 43.

15. Mark A Greene, ‘MPLP: It’s Not Just for Processing Anymore’, The American Archivist, vol. 73, no. 1, 2010, pp. 175–203; Mark A Greene and Dennis Meissner, ‘More Product, Less Process: Revamping Traditional Archival Processing’, The American Archivist, vol. 68, no. 2, pp. 208–63.

16. SAA.

17. Australian Society of Archivists, ‘Code of Ethics’, 1993, available at <https://www.archivists.org.au/about-us/code-of-ethics>, accessed July 2018.

18. Laura Clark Brown and Nancy Kaiser, ‘Opening Archives on the Recent American Past: Reconciling the Ethics of Access and the Ethics of Privacy’, in Claire Bond Potter and Renee C Romano (eds), Doing Recent History: On Privacy, Copyright, Video Games, Institutional Review Boards, Activist Scholarship, and History That Talks Back, University of Georgia Press, Athens, GA, 2012, p. 79.

19. SAA, ‘Sensitive’, ‘Privacy’, Glossary of Archival and Records Terminology, n.d., available at <https://www2.archivists.org/glossary/terms/s/sensitive>, accessed October 2018; SAA, ‘SAA Core Values Statement and Code of Ethics’.

20. Behrndt-Klodt and Wosh, p. 182; Gilliland and Wiener, pp. 387–8.

21. Nissenbaum pp. 96, 115.

22. Ruth Gavison, ‘Privacy and the Limits of the Law’, Yale Law Review, vol. 89, no. 3, 1980, p. 459.

23. Sara Hodson, ‘In Secret Kept, in Silence Sealed: Privacy in the Papers of Authors and Celebrities’, The American Archivist, vol. 67, no. 2, 2004, p. 196; Jean Dryden, ‘Cavalier or Careful? How Users Approach the Rights Management Practices of Archival Repositories’, Journal of Archival Organization, vol. 10, nos. 3–4, 2012, pp. 191–206.

24. Hodson, p. 207.

25. Elena S Danielson, The Ethical Archivist, Society of American Archivists, Chicago, IL, 2010, pp. 184–5; Pekka Henttonen, ‘Privacy as an Archival Problem and a Solution’, Archival Science, vol. 17, no. 3, 2017, p. 295; Brown and Kaiser, pp. 59–60.

26. Brown and Kaiser, p. 60.

27. Henttonen, p. 295; Menzi L Behrnd-Klodt, Navigating Legal Issues in Archives, Society of American Archivists, Chicago, IL, 2008, p. 60.

28. Dooley and Luce; Dharma Akmon, ‘Only with Your Permission: How Rights Holders Respond (or Don’t Respond) to Requests to Display Archival Materials Online’, Archival Science, vol. 10, no. 1, 2010, pp. 45–64.

29. Steven Bingo, ‘Of Provenance and Privacy: Using Contextual Integrity to Define Third-Party Privacy’, The American Archivist, vol. 74, no. 2, 2011, p. 511.

30. Brown and Kaiser, p. 71.

31. Institute of Museum and Library Services (IMLS), ‘Museum Grants for African American History and Culture – FY17 Notice of Funding Opportunity’, 2016, available at <https://www.imls.gov/nofo/museum-grants-african-american-history-and-culture-fy17-notice-funding-opportunity>, accessed October 2016; Council on Library and Information Resources, ‘Digitizing Hidden Collections Program: 2016 Cycle At a Glance’, 2016, available at <https://www.clir.org/hiddencollections/DigHCflyer2.pdf>, accessed October 2016.

32. Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, ‘The Long Civil Rights Movement and Political Uses of the Past’, The Journal of American History, vol. 91, no. 4, 2005, p. 1235, available at <http://www.jstor.org/stable/3660172>, accessed August 2018.

33. Lisa K Speer, ‘Fresh Focus: Mississippi’s “Spy Files”: The State Sovereignty Commission Records Controversy, 1977–1999’, Provenance, Journal of the Society of Georgia Archivists, vol. 17, no. 1, 1999, p. 105.

34. ibid., p. 102.

35. ibid., pp. 105–6.

36. ibid., pp. 110–11.

37. ibid., pp. 111–13.

38. ibid., p. 113.

39. Anna Schwind, Sarah Rowe-Sims and David Pilcher, ‘The Conversion of the Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission Records’, The Primary Source, vol. 24, no. 2, 2002, p. 7, available at <http://aquila.usm.edu/theprimarysource/vol24/iss2/2>, accessed August 2018.

40. American Civil Liberties Union v. Fordice, U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Mississippi, 31 May 1994, available at <https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/FSupp/969/403/1808541/>, accessed August 2018.

41. ibid.

42. Sarah Rowe-Sims and David Pilcher, ‘Processing the Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission Records’, The Primary Source, vol. 21, no. 1, 1999, pp. 18–19, available at <http://aquila.usm.edu/theprimarysource/vol21/iss1/2>, accessed August 2018.

43. MacNeil, p. 147; Cox and Wallace, p. 11.

44. Bingo, p. 521.

45. ibid.

46. Nissembaum.

47. Lawrence Cappello, ‘Big Iron and the Small Government: On the History of Data Collection and Privacy in the United States’, The Journal of Policy History, vol. 29, no. 1, 2017, p. 177.

48. Virginia Braun and Victoria Clark, ‘Using Thematic Analysis in Psychology’, Qualitative Research in Psychology, vol. 3, no. 2, 2006, pp. 77–101; Alan Bryman, Social Research Methods, 3rd edn, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2008, p. 584.

49. Braun and Clark.

50. Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison, Research Methods in Education, 6th edn, Routledge, London, 2007, p. 149.

51. SAA, ‘SAA Core Values Statement and Code of Ethics’, 2011.

52. Behrnd-Klodt and Wosh, p. 79.

53. SAA, ‘SAA Core Values Statement and Code of Ethics’, 2011.

54. Eric Ketelaar, ‘Access: The Democratic Imperative’, Archives and Manuscripts, vol. 34, no. 2, 2007, pp. 62–81.

55. SAA, ‘SAA Core Values Statement and Code of Ethics’; Cox and Wallace; Ketelaar, pp. 74–5.

56. See note 6 above.

57. Eichhorn, p. 228.

58. Zinaida Manžuch, ‘Ethical Issues in Digitization of Cultural Heritage’, Journal of Contemporary Archival Studies, vol. 4, no. 2, p. 3, 2017, available at <http://elischolar.library.yale.edu/jcas/vol4/iss2/4>, accessed October 2018.

59. See note 9 above.

60. MacNeil, p. 62.

61. Anderson, pp. 67–8; Greene, pp. 193–4.

62. ibid., p. 82.

63. Anne Gilliland and Sue McKemmish, ‘The Role of Participatory Archives in Furthering Human Rights, Reconciliation, and Recovery’, Atlanti: Review for Modern Archival Theory and Practice, vol. 24, 2014, pp. 78–88; Jeannette Bastian and Ben Alexander, Community Archives: The Shaping of Memory, Facet Publishing, London, 2009; Michelle Caswell, Marika Cifor and Mario H Ramirez, ‘“To Suddenly Discover Yourself Existing”: Uncovering the Impact of Community Archives’, The American Archivist, vol. 79, no. 1, 2016, pp. 56–81; Andrew Flinn, Mary Stevens and Elizabeth Shepherd, ‘Whose Memories, Whose Archives? Independent Community Archives, Autonomy, and the Mainstream’, Archival Science, vol. 9, no. 1, 2009, pp. 71–86; Manžuch.

64. Gilliland and McKemmish, p. 80.

65. ibid., pp. 80–1; Anne Gilliland and Andrew Flinn, ‘Community Archives: What Are We Really Talking About? in Proceedings of CIRN 2013 Community Informatics Conference: Nexus, Confluence, and Difference, Prato, Italy, 28–30 October 2013, p. 3, available at <http://ccnr.infotech.monash.edu/assets/docs/prato2013_papers/gilliland_flinn_keynote.pdf>, accessed August 2018; Manžuch, pp. 3–4.

66. Gilliland and McKemmish, p. 80.

67. Eichhorn, pp. 228–9.

68. ibid.

69. ibid., p. 236.

70. Tonia Sutherland, ‘Archival Amnesty: In Search of Black American Transitional and Restorative Justice’, in Michelle Caswell, Ricardo Punzalan and T-Kay Sangwand (eds), Critical Archival Studies, special issue, Journal of Critical Library and Information Studies, vol. 1, no. 2, 2017, p. 6; Grace Elizabeth Hale, Making Whiteness: The Culture of Segregation in the South, 1890–1940, Vintage Books, New York, 1999, p. 222.

71. Anderson, p. 20.

72. Gilliland and McKemmish, p. 1; Manžuch, pp. 10–11.

73. Gauld, pp. 233–4; Bingo, p. 511.

74. Desirée Henderson, ‘Reading Digitized Diaries: Privacy and the Digital Life-Writing Archive’, a/b Auto/Biographical Studies, vol. 33, no. 1, 2018, p. 169.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Ellen LeClere

Ellen LeClere is a doctoral student at the University of Wisconsin-Madison’s Information School. Her dissertation research examines issues of information ethics in large-scale digitisation labour.

Log in via your institution

Log in to Taylor & Francis Online

There are no offers available at the current time.

Related Research

People also read lists articles that other readers of this article have read.

Recommended articles lists articles that we recommend and is powered by our AI driven recommendation engine.

Cited by lists all citing articles based on Crossref citations.
Articles with the Crossref icon will open in a new tab.