From reproductive health to sexual rights achievements and future challenges

References

• J. Flax. Pós-modernismo e as Relações de Gêndeo na Teoria Feminista Pós-modernismo e Polftica. H. Holanda. 1992; Rocco: Rio de Janeiro.
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• For example, the Brazilian national document, being prepared as the Plan of Equality and Opportunities, included reproductive rights in the section on health but not in the section on human rights.
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• S. Corrêa. Population and Reproductive Rights: Feminist Perspectives from the South. 1994; Zed Books: London.
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• C. Garcia-Moreno. Challenges from the women's health movement: women's rights versus population control. G. Sen, A. Germain, L.C. Chen. Population Policies Reconsidered: Health, Empowerment and Rights. 1994; Harvard University Press: Boston.
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• Examples are: discussions in the Women's Global Network for Reproductive Rights, DAWN network members' preparations for ICPD and the IRRRAG project.
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• Two significant examples are: (i) A paper I wrote with R Petchesky: Reproductive and sexual rights: a feminist perspective (see [36] below for reference). However, this text does not elaborate in any depth on the implications of the concept in terms of sexuality. (ii) Population and Reproductive Rights: Feminist Perspectives from the South, written on the basis of discussions among feminist researchers and activists in five Southern regions (Latin America, the Caribbean, Asia, Africa and the Pacific) in which the theme of sexuality was included. It addresses situations in which the notion of sexual rights could be applied (eg. in relation to genital mutilation and rape in marriage) but it does not discuss the concept of sexual rights itself. (See [31 above for reference.).
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• Participating in the informal negotiations were: the Dutch Minister for the European Union, United States, Iran, Morocco, Egypt, Senegal for the African region, the Caribbean, and several Latin American countries. Clearly, there were very diverse motivations. The European Union position, especially that of the Netherlands, was influenced by a domestic commitment to the homosexual movement. The African agenda was to eradicate child marriage and genital mutilation. More liberal Islamic countries fought for a weaker definition to avoid fundamentalist reactions upon their return from Beijing. The Caribbean and some Latin American countries defended the paragraph as a democratic principle. The United States kept a low profile because of conservative pressure at home.
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• Mexican NGOs with HIV/AIDS prevention programmes are using the notion of sexual health extensively, in the belief that this term is better adapted to certain cultural contexts than the more radical formulation of ‘sexual rights’.
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• ICPD Programme of Action, Paragraph 7.3, United Nations 1994.
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• Contemporary debate on rights has been marked by sharp controversy regarding the individualistic and liberal (Lockean) tradition of rights as opposed to collective rights, as presented in Marxist perspectives. These conflicts are being resolved, at least at the conceptual level, by some feminists [71 and theories such as Foucault's [361. However, this controversy can also be resolved on the basis of the principles of solidarity and the indivisibility of human rights - individual, civil, political, social, economic, cultural and environmental. These were legitimised in the Vienna conference on human rights (1993) and taken up agai at subsequent UN conferences.
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• In many aspects, the definition of the ‘classical agenda’ emerges parallel to the historical trajectory of the workers' movement, in its struggle for human and political rights and for social well-being.
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• These brief reflections summarise the theoretical framework of Boaventura dos Santos, for whom the project of modernity was initially characterised by an equilibrium between regulation and emancipation. For Santos, Foucault's merit was to identify the crucial tensions of modernity: between citizenship and subjectivity, between change and increasing regulation.
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• The contents of this section were originally developed in a previous article. S. Corrêa. Gênero e sexualidade: sistemas autônomos ou idéias fora do lugar?. R.M. Barbosa, R. Parker. Sexualidades Brasileiras. 1996; Relume Dumard: Rio de Janeiro.
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• With different magnitudes, this proposition can be found in [1], [8], [15] and [31]. Petchesky suggests that this trap is derived from economism, which still underlies feminist intellectual efforts regarding gender and sexuality. This conclusion is mainly based on a critical evaluation of feminist discourse in the developing world. Dowsett, in turn, emphasises the positive dimensions of bodies at play in sexuality, conceptualisin sexual pleasure as a ‘big bang’. He strongly suggests that the power and extent of the means of controlling sexuality are not as extensive as Foucault postulated. The two views should not be taken as opposing, but as two different perceptions of the issues: North and South, male homosexuality and feminism.
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• G. Dowsett. Bodyplay: corporeality in a discursive silence. Paper presented at BeConceiving Sexualities: International Seminar on Gender, Sexuality and Sexual Health, Rio de Janeiro. April 13–18, 1996
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• M. Foucault. História da Sexualidade II: O Uso dos Prazeres. 1984; Graal: Rio de Janeiro.
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• Dowsett's reflections are based on research with homosexual men, where gender plays a distinct role and where there are other influences on sexual relations. It will be necessary to rethink these perspectives in any analysis and research on sexuality between men and women, and between women and women.
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• J.F. Costa. O referente da identidade homossexual. R.M. Barbosa, R. Parker. Sexualidades Brasileiras. 1996; Relume Dumara: Rio de Janeiro.
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• The same perspective can be found in other authors, eg. Philippe Aries who suggests that we should move towards a form of unisexuality (cited in History of Private Life. Volume 5: 1996; Companhia das Letras: Sao Paulo.
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• S. Corrêa. Reproductive and sexual rights: a feminist perspective. G. Sen, A. Germaine, L. Chen. Population Policies ReConsidered: Health, Empowerment and Rights. 1994; Harvard School of Public Health: Boston.
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