- Fraunhofer , Joseph . 1815 . 'Bestimmung des Brechungs- und Farbenzerstreuungs-Vermögens verschiedener Glasarten' . Denkschriften der königlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Munich , 5 193-223 and 3 plates (translated into English by David Brewster in the Edinburgh Journal, 9 (1923), 288-99 and Plate VII). On the context of Fraunhofer's work see
- Jackson , Myles . 1994 . 'Artisanal Knowledge and Experimental Natural Philosophers: the British Response to Joseph Fraunhofer and the Bavarian Usurpation of their Optical Empire' . Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science , 25 : 549 – 75 . and his book on Fraunhofer, Spectrum of Belief (Cambridge, MA, 2000)
- Brasack , F. 1866 . 'Spectral-analytische Untersuchungen der Metalle' . Abhandlungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft. Halle , 9 : 1 – 16 . 'um die Orientierung zu erleichtern', according to Bunsen and Kirchhoff (note 3), p. 161; cf. also, (colour plate), and Rudolf Theodor Simmler, 'Beiträge zur chemischen Analyse durch Spektralbeobachtungen' (inaugural dissertation, Berne, Chur, 1861), p. 14, who explicitly states that he used coincidences with known spectral lines for fixing the position of the new lines in his map, and plotted several of those reference lines in row 2 of his plate to provide his reader with the same guide
- Bennett , J. A. 1984 . 'The Spectroscope's First Decade' . Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society , 4 : 3 – 6 . 3 See Bunsen and Kirchhoff (note 3), p. 376. Cf. also
- Brachner , Alto . 1986 . “ 'Die Münchener Optik in der Geschichte. Entstehung, Unternehmungen, Sternwarten, Lokalitäten, Ausbreitung' ” . 282ff Munich on the considerable advances made with spectroscopes between 1860 and 1861, and, thesis, about the cooperation between scientists and the Steinheil company
- Watts , W. M. 1881 . On a Method of Observing and Mapping Spectra' . Report of the Meetings of the British Association for the Advancement of Science , 51 : 317 – 27 . See Bunsen (note 3), p. 290, cf. also, with Plate V, pp. 317-8 and 320 for further details on the adjustments, and Francois Lecoq de Boisbaudron, Spectres lumineux. Spectres prismatiques et en longueurs d'onde, 2 vols (Paris, 1874), or Hermann Wilhelm Vogel, Practische Spectralanalyse irdischer Stoffe, 1st edn (Nördlingen, 1877), p. 51, for different conventions: Lecoq set Na0=50; Vogel set Na0=O and counted positively towards the violet and negatively towards the red
- Schellen , Heinrich . 1871 . Die Spectralanalyse, , 2nd edn 229 Braunschweig On this well-known dependence of dispersion on the type of glass see, for example
- Watts , W. Marshall . 1872 . An Index of Spectra vi London and and H. W. Vogel (note 8), pp. 49-50; cf. also Lecoq de Boisbaudran (note 8), p. 4, or Watts (note 8), p. 325, for a comparison of the angular refraction of three flint glass prisms from the same instrument maker, Jules Duboscq (1817-86) in Paris
- Bunsen , R. W. 1863 . On Caesium' . Philosophical Magazine , 26 : 241 – 8 . Ser. 4, with Plate V, p. 246
- Johnson , S. W. and Alien , O. D. 1863 . On the Equivalent and Spectrum of Caesium' . Philosophical Magazine , 25 : 196 – 200 . Ser. 4, (pp. 199-200): 'four red lines to the left of those given by Kirchhoff and Bunsen, […] a fine yellow line and two unimportant green lines not mapped by them'; the other red lines allegedly were 'too near each other and too far to the right'
- Thalén , R. 1868 . 'Mémoire sur la détermination des longueurs d'onde des raies métalliques' . Nova Acta Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Upsaliensis , 6 (9) : 1 – 38 . 10 Ser. 3, for another spectroscopist's admission to having omitted most weaker lines in his maps, and Watts (note 8), p. 317, reiterating that for chemical analysis often 'very rough measurement only is needed; indeed, in most cases, the colour of the line or the general appearance of the spectrum is sufficient'
- Merz , S. 1862 . 'Uber das Farbenspektrum' . Annalen der Physik , 117 : 654 – 6 . 655
- Roscoe , Henry Enfield . 1863-68 . “ 'Light' ” . In Dictionary of Chemistry and the Allied Branches of Other Sciences Edited by: Watts , Henry . III 598 – 695 . 621 on Kirchhoff's very elaborate map'
- Kirchhoff , G.R. 1861 . “ 'Untersuchungen ober das Sonnenspectrum and die Spectrum der chemischen Elemente' ” . In Abbhandlunge n der Königllch Preußischem der Wissenchaften zu Berlin (mathematisch- physikalisher Tell) 63 – 95 . Part I
- 1862 . Philosophical Magazine , 24 : 52 – 7 . 54 with Plates I and II (1862), 227-40 with Plates la and 17 Anonymous review of Kirchhoff's papers (ibid.), Ser. 4
- Roscoe , H. E. 1868 . “ 'Spectral analysis' ” . In Dictionary of Chemistry Edited by: Watts , Henry . v 376 – 97 . London with 2 plates, p. 386, on the discrepancy between Kirchhoff's and Muggins's spectrum maps of 1864, owing to the fact that Kirchhoff had altered the position of his prisms several times during the measurement to keep them in the position of minimum refraction while Huggins had not
- Fox , C. 1976 . 'The Engravers' Battle for Professional Recognition in Early Nineteenth-Century London' . London Journal , 2 : 3 – 32 . Thanks to Prussian pedantry, we can check their social settings by consulting the street index in the Berlin Addressbuch, which lists house by house the businesses on all the major streets of Berlin. Thence we learn that he lived in a bourgeois neighbourhood C. Laue's neighbours included a carpenter, a physician, a salesman, an insurance agent, two pensioners, and the owner of a dyeworks. A similar picture emerges from an analysis of London engravers' living quarters in
- Dyson , Anthony . 1984 . Pictures to Print: the Nineteenth-Century Engraving Trade xxiii ff London
- K. and Hentschel , A. M. 2001 . 'Dulos, graveur de l'Académie des Sciences: Traces of an Engraver in 19th-century Paris' . French History , For a case study on a Parisian engraver see, (to appear)
- Twyman , Michael . 1970 . “ Lithography 1800-1850 ” . In The Techniques of Drawing on Stone in England and France and their Application in Works of Topography London Cf., for example, Charles Hullmandel, The Art of Drawing on Stone, Giving a Full Explanation of the VOTUMS Styles, of the Different Methods to be Employed to Ensure Success, and of the Modes of Correcting as Well as of the Several Causes of Failure (1st edn, 1824), 2nd edn (London, 1833), Plate I, and
- Hullmandel , C. , ed. 1821 . Paris, at the Royal School of the Roads and Bridges, , 2nd edn 28ff London Plates 38 and 39, for early illustrations of the microscopic patterns on the stone's surface, and Antoine Raucourt, A Manual of Lithography; or: Memoir on the Lithographical Experiments Made in, 93ff. on the consequences of this texture for the printer's handling of ink
- Vogel , H. C. 1879 . 'Untersuchungen Ober das Sonnenspektrum' . Publikationen des Astrophysikalischen Observatoriums, Potsdam , 1 (3) : 133 – 70 . and Plates 9-16, p. 143. The advice about using three different crayon or pen nib thicknesses, respectively for the background, mid-distance, and foreground is given, for example, by Twyman (note 21), p. 89
- Blum , Ann Shelby . 1993 . Picturing Nature: American 19th Century Zoological Illustration 263 Princeton, NJ See Hullmandel (note 21), pp. 81-2, and, for examples of colour lithography in an American publication around 1890 done by lithographic draughtsmen in Frankfurt, Germany, where it still was cheaper than in the US
- Gandy , L. C. 1940 . 'The story of lithography' . Lithographers' Journal , 24 (11) February : 1 – 16 . S (Suppl.)
- Goss , John . 1993 . The Mapmaker's Art: A History of Cartography 221 ff London on military topographical maps printed in four colours, cf
- Roll , Eduard . 1939 . “ Hermann Wilhelm Vogel ” . In Ein Lebensbild 110 113 Borna on chromolithography with up to fifteen to twenty stones, see
- Grandeau , L. 1863 . 'Recherches sur le spectre solaire et sur les spectres des corps simples' . Annales de Chimie et de Physique , 68 : 5 – 45 . See the plates for the French version of Kirchhoff (note 16) translated by, Ser. 3 with PlateI, and Ser. 4, 1 (1864), 396411 with Plates II and III. These 35cm long plates had to be folded twice to fit into the Annales' octavo format, so the mere size does not explain why they did not print from the same stones because the original plates are of the same length. The 'procédé Dulos' and an enlarged reproduction of a segment of this reprint are discussed in K. and A. M. Hentschel (note 20). A contemporary complaint about such ambiguity for spectral lines of the usual print syntax is quoted here on p. 77
- Angstrom , A. J. and Thalen , R. 1866 . Om de Fraunhoferska liniema jemte teckning af de violetta delen af solspektrum' . Kongliga Svenska Vetenskaps-Akademiens Handlingar , 5 (9) : 1 – 7 . with 2 plates. They used a single 60° prism filled with bisulphide of carbon, the drawings were made by Thalen by hand, and the two lithographers were Schlachter and Seedorff in Stockholm
- Angstrom , Anders Jonas . 1868 . Recherches sur le spectre solaire Uppsala text volume and separate atlas with six plates. His subsequent tables already included wavelengths to an accuracy of two digits after the decimal point
- Mascart , Eleuthère . 1902 . Funérailles de M. Alfred Cornu, membre de l'Académie Paris Cornu had matriculated at the École Polytechnique in 1860 and the École des Mines in 1862, to become répétiteur in 1864 and professeur à l'École Polytechnique in 1867, and subsequently member of the Paris Academy of Sciences in 1878, member of the Bureau de Longitude in 1886, and corresponding member of seven other scientific academies. A specialist in optics. Cornu became most famous for his precision measurements of the velocity of light, for which he also received the Prix Lacaze of the Paris Academy of Sciences. Cf., for example
- Bassot , J.-A.-L. and Poincaré , H. “ 'Discours prononcé aux funérailles de M. A. Cornu, membre de l'Académie des Sciences, le mercredi 16 avril 1902' ” . In Annuaire publié par le Bureau des Longitudes Paris , pour 1903, Dl-Dl 1
- S.P.T. 1905 . 'Alfred Marie Cornu. 1841-1902' . Proceedings of the Royal Society , 75 : 184 – 8 .
- Anonymous . 1904 . Alfred Cornu 1841-1902 Rennes and the personal dossiers at the Archives de l'Académie des Sciences, Paris, and the Archives de l'École Polytechnique
- Cornu , A. 1874 . 'Sur le spectre normale du soleil, partie ultra-violette' . Annales Scientifiques de l'École Normale Supérieure , 3 : 421 – 34 . On the following see, Ser. 2
- 1880 . 'Deuxième partie' . Annales Scientifiques de l'École Normale Supérieure , 9 : 21 – 106 . with Plate I, pp. 432-3; for thé interpolation formula, see the appendix to his
- Cornu , A. 1883 . 'Sur un spectroscope à grande dispersion' . Journal de Physique , 2 February : 55 – 7 . with Plates I and II; and for a description of his custom-designed highdispersion spectroscope, built by J. Duboscq, see, Ser. 2
- Brachner , A. 1985 . “ 'German nineteenth century scientific instrument makers' ” . In Nineteenth Century Scientific Instruments and their Makers Edited by: DeClercq , P. R. 117 – 67 . 120 146 Amsterdam Cf., for example, Sigmund Theodor Stein, Das Licht im Dienste wissenschaftlicher Forschung (Leipzig, 1877), pp. 449ff. According to, Georg Oberhauser (1798-1868) moved to Paris in 1822 in response to a depression in the scientific instrument trade
- Hartley , W. N. and Adeney , W. E. 1884 . 'Measurements of Wavelengths of Lines of High Refrangibility in the Spectra of Elementary Substances' . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. London , 175 : 63 – 137 . Cf., for example, the praise in, with Plates 4-6, p. 63: 'splendid map'
- Smyth , C. Piazzi . 1880 . 'The Solar Spectrum in 1877-78, with Some Practical Idea of its Probable Temperature of Origination' . Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh , 29 : 285 – 342 . with Plate II, p. 289. On Piazzi Smyth's own efforts at spectrum portraiture see Section 5 here
- 1887 . 'Dr. L. Thollon' . The Observatory , 10 : 207 On Thollon, who specialized in high-dispersion spectroscopy, including the experimental verification in 1879 of the Doppler-Fizeau shift caused by solar rotation, see P. J. C. Janssen, [La mort de M. Thollon], Comptes Rendus hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences, 104 (1887), 1047-8; the unsigned obituary
- Levy , J. R. 1976 . 'Thollon, Louis' . Dictionary of Scientific Biography , XIII : 344
- Thollon , L. 1879 . 'Dessin du spectre solaire' . Comptes Rendus hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences , 88 : 1305 – 07 . 1305 'I applied myself toward reproducing with the utmost care the physiognomy that my instrument's enormous dispersion lends to each line'
- Thollon , L. 1878 . 'Nouveau spectroscope à vision directe' . Comptes Rendus hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences , 86 : 329 – 31 . 595 – 8 . esp. pp. 595-8, for his geometrical proof that each 'prism couple', joined at their bases, were positioned at minimum deviation once the angles / and e of the light were equal to the normals of the outer prism faces
- Ibid., p. 331.
- Thollon , L. 1980 . 'Sur un nouveau spectroscope stellaire' . Comptes Rendus hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences , 89 : 749 – 52 . 750 – 2 . for a comparison of the light loss in an Amici prism and in Thollon's block arrangement: 57% loss for the former, and 37% for the latter
- Laurent , L. 1879 . 'Sur le spectroscope de M. Thollon' . Comptes Rendus hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences , 88 : 82 – 4 . On Laurent, who had worked in the optical instrument shop of G. Frommet for fourteen years before joining his father-in-law Duboscq's instrument shop in 1870 and taking over the central position of 'constructor d'instruments d'optique et de précision' there in 1872, see, for example, Poggendorff, vols HI and iv; on his spectroscopes for Thollon, see esp. A. Guebhard, 'Le spectroscope et ses derniers perfectionnements'. La Nature, Ser. 7 (1879, 2nd semester), 223-6 (p. 223)
- Thollon , L. 1879 . 'Nouveau prisme composé, pour spectroscope à vision directe, de très-grand pouvoir dispersif' . Comptes Rendus hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences , 88 : 80 – 2 . 81
- Thollon , L. 1883 . 'Nouveau spectroscope' . Annales de l'Observatoire de Nice , 1 : 104 – 11 . 108 – 11 . See Eugène Spée, Région b-fdu spectre solaire (Brussels, 1899), text and plate vols, viii-ix, as well as Guebhard (note 56), p. 224, according to which three fluid prisms twice traversed by the light had a dispersion equivalent to thirty-one ordinary flint-glass prisms with a 60° refractive angle and a refraction index of 1.63. Cf. also, and the illustration of Thollon's high dispersion direct-vision spectroscope manufactured by A. Jobin in the publication by Syndicat des Constructeurs en Instruments d'Optique & de Precision: L'Industrie Française des Instruments de Précision (Paris, 1901, reprinted 1980), p. 137
- Ranyard , A. C. 1 September 1890 . “ On Some Recent Advances in the Mapping of the Solar Spectrum' ” . In Knowledge 1 September , 211 – 13 . London with 2 plates, p. 211. For contemporary praise of Thollon's spectroscope see, for example, Arthur Schuster to Charles Piazzi Smyth, 14 July 1882 (Royal Observatory Edinburgh 15.67, folder S)
- Thollon , L. 1890 . 'Nouveau dessin du spectre solaire' . Annales de l'Observatoire de Nice , 3 : A7 – A112 . Of the 3202 dark spectral lines listed in Thollon's accompanying table, 2090 were of purely solar origin, 866 of atmospheric absorption lines, and 246 were labelled 'mixtes'; see, with its 'Atlas: Spectre solaire de M. Thollon' of 17 plates. Cf. also the text volume of Spée (note 61), p. x
- See, for example, Spée (note 61), p. xiii: 'a quite large number of lines seen as single with Thollon's spectroscope were found to resolve into two, even into three, in Rowland's tables'. Cf. ibid., p. ÷ vii: 'Mr. George Higgs of Liverpool, while working with a concave grating of four-inch diameter and a degree of curvature often feet, has obtained photographs of the D group where one counts 25 to 30 lines. Thollon's drawing contains only fifteen'. See also Heinrich Kayser's autobiography, 'Erinnerungen aus meinem Leben', typescript from 1936 ed. by Matthias Domes and Klaus Hentschel (Munich, 1996), p. 132, in which he refers to Thollon's work as follows: '[Stopped in] Nice, where I looked up the astronomer Thollon, who was at that time occupied with the large atlas of the solar spectrum,-a very creditable enterprise, had it not been immediately surpassed, by a wide margin, by Rowland's photographic atlas'.
- Hentschel , K. 1999 . 'The Culture of Visual Representations in Spectroscopic Education and Laboratory Instruction' . Physics in Perspectives , 1 : 292 – 327 .
- Warner , Brian . 1983 . Charles Piazzi Smyth: Astronomer-Artist Cape Town On Piazzi Smyth's multifarious talents and his emphasis on visual aspects, see
- Schaaf , L. J. 1979 . 'Charles Piazzi Smyth's 1865 Conquest of the Great Pyramids' . History of Photography , 3 : 331 – 54 .
- Schaaf , L. J. 1980 . 'Piazzi Smyth at Teneriffe' . History of Photography , 4 : 289 – 307 . 5 (1981), 27-50
- Thomas , Ann , ed. 1997 . Beauty of Another Order: Photography in Science 88 – 91 . New Haven, CT A detailed scientific biography is provided
- Hermann , A. and Brück , Mary T. 1988 . “ The Peripathetic Astronomer ” . In The Life of Charles Piazzi Smyth Bristol
- Smyth , C. Piazzi . 1846 . On Astronomical Drawing' . Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society , 15 : 71 – 82 .
- Hentschel , Klaus and Wittmann , Axel D. , eds. 2000 . The Role of Visual Representation in Astronomy: History and Research Practice 66 – 78 . Frankfurt repr., with annotations and added illustrations, in
- Brück , M. T. 1988 . 'The Piazzi Smyth Collection of Sketches, Photographs and Manuscripts at the Royal Observatory, Edinburgh' . Vistas in Astronomy , 32 : 371 – 408 . See, for example, Piazzi Smyth's diaries and notebooks since c. 1876, Royal Observatory Edinburgh 18.105 and 113 (Lisbon), pp. 114-116 (Madeira, Edinburgh, Winchester, and Clova; 1882-92); cf. also Brück and Brück (note 70), chs 9-13, as well as
- Smyth , C. Piazzi . 1887 . The Visual, Grating, and Glass-Lens, Solar Spectrum (in 1884 [at Winchester])' . Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh , 32 : 519 – 43 . with Plate 83-143, for the wavelength regions corresponding to the designated colours ultrared, deep red, red, orange, yellow, citron, green, glaucous blue, deep blue, violet, and ultraviolet; cf. also Piazzi Smyth's notebook. Royal Observatory Edinburgh 18.114, entry 3 of the period October 1884-February 1885, p. 168, and entry 4 of March/April 1885, according to which fifty-three of the sixty plates were finished, but 'progress now slower on account of resumption of Star Catalogue Printing'
- Ibid., p. 531.
- Plücker , J. and Hittorf , W. 1865 . On the Spectra of Ignited Gases and Vapours, with Especial Regard to the Different Spectra of the Same Elementary Gaseous Substance' . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, London , 155 : 1 – 30 . 27 See Simmler (note 4), p. IS; similar complaints about a lack of brilliance were also raised in, with reference to the part of their colour lithograph (Plate I) displaying the cyanogen band spectrum. This plate had been printed off no less than ten stones by Aimé Henry (1801-75) in Bonn, a lithographer normally specializing in botanical illustrations: cf. Plücker to Stokes, 21 March 186S (Stokes collection, Cambridge University Library, Mss.Add. 76S6, call number P399). I am grateful to Dipl.phys. FaIk Müller (Oldenburg) for drawing my attention to this correspondence
- Hentschel , K. 1999 . 'Photographic Mapping of the Solar Spectrum 1864-1900" . Journal for the History of Astronomy , 30 : 93 – 224 . See, for instance, Piazzi Smyth's studies on the Great H and K solar spectrum lines and on other lines at the border between the visible and invisible part of the solar spectrum (1891-94), Royal Observatory Edinburgh 18.135-136. On spectrophotography in general, see
- 1905-08 . Edward Charles Cyrill BaIy, Spectroscopy, , 3rd edn 14ff London These research strands have been treated in many standard histories of spectroscopy: see, for example, McGucken (note 3), pp. 131ff, my introduction to Kayser's reminiscences (note 67), pp. xxii-xliii, or, HI, In Hentschel (note 49) I discuss it from the perspective of the visual research strategies involved
- On the emergence of this 'visual culture' and on the pedagogical strategies to pass it on to students and practitioners, see Hentschel (note 69). In opposition to the recent inflationary dilution of the term 'visual culture', for instance, in the Visual Culture Reader, ed. by Nicholas Mirzoeff (London, 1998), I use this term only to denote specific subcultures within science with a particularly prominent place for visual patterns, and only if there are contemporary counterexamples not exhibiting these features (such as here the photographical tradition, or later the Bohrian quantum theorists).
Annals of Science
Volume 59, 2002 - Issue 1