- Adam and Tannery , eds. 1897–1910 . Oeuvres de Descartes Vol. xi , 23 – 23 . Paris
- Boerhaave , H. 1735 . Elements of Chemistry Edited by: Dallowe , T. Vol. i , 80 – 80 . London
- R. Rappaport reserves the term ‘element-instrument theory’ for theories such as those of G. E. Stahl and G. F. Rouelle where each of the elements was both a component of matter capable of entering into chemical combination, and a physical instrument initiating chemical reaction. Rouelle and Stahl—The Phlogistic Revolution in France Chymia 1961 7 76 76 The term ‘element-instrument’ theory is, however, a very convenient term to use for Boerhaave's concept of the elements, provided it is borne in mind that the connotation here is different.
- Bostocke , Robert . 1585 . The difference between the auncient Phisicke … and the latter Phisicke B7v – B7v . London J. Duchesne, The Practise of Chymicall, and Hermeticalle Physicke, trans. T. Tymme, London, 1605, G3v. See also A. G. Debus, The English Paracelsians, London, 1965, p. 57ff.
- Spedding , ed. 1870 . The Works of Francis Bacon Vol. iv , 125 – 125 . London (Novum Organum, II, Aph. 7). J. B. van Helmont, Oriatrike or, Physick Refined, trans. John Chandler, London, 1662, p. 408. R. Boyle, The Sceptical Chymist, London, 1661, p. 29; pp. 48–49. See A. G. Debus, ‘Fire Analysis and the Elements in the 16th and 17th Centuries’, Ann. Sci., 1967, 23, 127–147.
- Dankmeijer , J. 1970 . “ Is Boerhaave's fame deserved? ” . In Boerhaave and his time Edited by: Lindeboom , G.A. 27 – 27 . Leyden
- Sassen , F.L.R. The Intellectual Climate in Leiden in Boerhaave's time . Boerhaave and his time , 6 – 7 . J. R. Partington, A History of Chemistry, London, 1961, vol. ii, p. 738.
- Sassen , F.L.R. The Intellectual Climate in Leiden in Boerhaave's time . Boerhaave and his time , 11 – 11 .
- Sassen , F.L.R. The Intellectual Climate in Leiden in Boerhaave's time . boerhaave and his time , 6 – 7 . Partington, cp. cit., vol. ii, p. 738.
- Lindeboom , G.A. 1968 . Herman Boerhaave, The Man and his Work 100 – 100 . London Sassen (footnote 7), pp. 12–13.
- Boerhaave , Herman . 1735 . Elements of Chemistry Edited by: Dallowe , T. Vol. i , 79 – 79 . London
- It is hard to determine whether Stahl's chemistry influenced Boerhaave at all. Stahl was mentioned only briefly by Boerhaave in his introductory theory of chemistry, where he recommended Stahl's Fundamenta Chymiae (1723) to his students. (Boerhaave, op. cit., vol. i, p. 18.) For an account of the relative positions of Boerhaave and Stahl in eighteenth-century chemistry, see Gibbs F.W. The Life and work of Herman Boerhaave University of London 1949 Ph.D. Thesis unpublished, Part II, pp. 120–139. Their main differences Gibbs listed as follows: Stahl dealt with ‘philosophic’ chemistry, Boerhaave with experimental and physical chemistry; Stahl's book represented the culmination of old tradition, Boerhaave's the start of a new one (p. 121); Stahl offered a systematic doctrine of combustion, while Boerhaave's theory of combustion lacked Stahl's coherence (p. 133)
- Love , R. 1972 . Some sources of Herman Boerhaave's doctrine of fire . Ambix , 19 : 157 – 174 .
- Boerhaave . 1735 . Elements of Chemistry Edited by: Dallowe , T. Vol. i , 112 – 113 . London p. 154
- See Rappaport R. Rouelle and Stahl—The Phlogistic Revolution in France Chymia 1961 7 84 85 for an account of G.E. Stahl's element-instrument theory of the elements.
- Boerhaave . 1735 . Elements of Chemistry Edited by: Dallowe , T. Vol. i , 45 – 45 . London
- Boerhaave . 1735 . Elements of Chemistry Edited by: Dallowe , T. Vol. i , 46 – 46 . London
- The ‘Spiritus Rector’ was defined as ‘A kind of Aura, or vapour … (which) expresses the true genius of the Body in which it resides; and it is this chiefly that accurately distinguishes it from all others’ Boerhaave Elements of Chemistry Dallowe T. London 1735 i 47 47 P. M. Heimann has suggested that this aspect of Boerhaave's chemistry has Helmontian overtones. P. M. Heimann, ‘Nature is a perpetual worker : Newton's aether and eighteenth century natural philosophy’, Ambix, 1973, 20, 13.
- Boerhaave . 1735 . Elements of Chemistry Edited by: Dallowe , T. Vol. i , 46 – 46 . London
- Boerhaave . 1735 . Elements of Chemistry Edited by: Dallowe , T. Vol. i , 46 – 46 . London
- Boerhaave . 1735 . Elements of Chemistry Edited by: Dallowe , T. Vol. i , 46 – 46 . London
- Boerhaave . 1735 . Elements of Chemistry Edited by: Dallowe , T. Vol. i , 47 – 47 . London
- Thackray , Arnold . 1970 . Atoms and Powers 165 – 165 . London
- On the general subject of the epistemological problems of the concept of an element, see Paneth F.A. The Epistemological Status of the Chemical Concept of Element Br. J. Phil. Soc. 1962 13 1 14 144–160
- Boerhaave . 1735 . Elements of Chemistry Edited by: Dallowe , T. Vol. i , 414 – 414 . London
- Boerhaave . 1735 . Element of Chemistry Edited by: Dallowe , T. Vol. i , 386 – 387 . London
- Boerhaave . 1735 . Elements of Chemistry Edited by: Dallowe , T. Vol. i , 397 – 397 . London
- Boerhaave . 1735 . Elements of Chemistry Edited by: Dallowe , T. Vol. i , 397 – 397 . London
- Boerhaave . 1735 . Elements of Chemistry Edited by: Dallowe , T. Vol. i , 45 – 45 . London
- Boerhaave . 1735 . Elements of Chemistry Edited by: Dallowe , T. Vol. i , 391 – 391 . London
- Boerhaave . 1735 . Elements of Chemistry Edited by: Dallowe , T. Vol. i , 393 – 393 . London
- Boerhaave . 1735 . Elements of Chemistry Edited by: Dallowe , T. Vol. i , 394 – 394 . London
- Boerhaave . 1735 . Elements of Chemistry Edited by: Dallowe , T. Vol. i , 402 – 402 . London
- Boerhaave . 1735 . Elements of Chemistry Edited by: Dallowe , T. Vol. i , 46 – 46 . London
- Boerhaave . 1735 . Elements of Chemistry Edited by: Dallowe , T. Vol. i , 78 – 78 . London
- Boerhaave . 1735 . Elements of Chemistry Edited by: Dallowe , T. Vol. i , London
- Boerhaave . 1735 . Elements of Chemistry Edited by: Dallowe , T. Vol. i , 88 – 88 . London
- Lindeboom , G.A. , ed. 1964 . Boerhaave's Correspondence Vol. ii , 13 – 13 . Leyden
- Boerhaave . Elements of Chemistry , i 114 – 114 . Elsewhere Boerhaave insists that the particles of fire, ‘whilst they expand or move themselves, tend equally towards every part of Space, and consequently, are not determined to one point more than another’ (Ibid., vol. i, p. 123).
- Boerhaave . Elements of Chemistry , i 94 – 94 . 106–107, 122
- Boerhaave . Elements of Chemistry , i 106 – 106 . Here it appears that a simple addition of the substance fire is postulated. In other passages, however, Boerhaave rejected this view and argued that it was not the substance of fire that was added, but motion alone was communicated from the flame below to the fire already present in this body above. (Ibid., vol. i, p. 88.) For an analysis of Boerhaave's inconsistencies, see H. Metzger, Newton, Stahl, Boerhaave, Paris, 1930, p. 219f. The question of inconsistency was here related to Boerhaave's curious claim that fire is equally distributed in nature.
- Boerhaave . 1735 . Elements of Chemistry Vol. i , 88 – 88 . London trans. T. Dallowe
- Boerhaave . 1735 . Elements of Chemistry Vol. i , 403 – 403 . London trans. T. Dallowe
- Fichmann , Martin . 1971 . French Stahlism and Chemical Studies of Air, 1750–1770 . Ambix , 18 : 98 – 98 . argues that Boerhaave's position concerning the chemical rôle of air is ambiguous. Certainly, Baumé and Lavoisier found it so. However, the fact remains that Boerhaave did assert in some contexts that air could enter into chemical combination, a property he consistently denied to fire. This is sufficient for our purposes
- Becher cited van Helmont as his source for the idea that air could never enter into chemical combination Metzger H. Boerhaave Elements of Chemistry i 133 133 Van Helmont supported his view with the assertion that air could never be converted into any other element (Oriatrike, pp. 65–66). Instead the elements could only be mixed with each other in a purely mechanical manner, never with the chemical intimacy necessary for transmutation. He also stressed that the activity of the element of air in rarefaction and separation was a mechanical activity only. It could never change ‘the form of water’, but merely alter its physical state (Ibid., pp. 76–77). In the 1727 English translation of the spurious Institutiones et experimenta chemiae (1724), compiled from notes of Boerhaave's course in chemistry, chemical activity of any kind was denied to air. (Boerhaave, A New Method of Chemistry, trans. P. Shaw and E. Chambers, London, 1727, vol. i, p. 298; p. 301.) Air, like fire, was a physical instrument pure and simple. Boerhaave took account of Hales's experiments in the subsequent authorized editions. (Boerhaave, Elements of Chemistry, trans. T. Dallowe, vol. i, p. 314.) For an account of Boerhaave's pneumatic chemistry, see Milton Kerker, ‘Herman Boerhaave and the development of pneumatic chemistry’, Isis, 1955, 46, 36–49.
- Boerhaave . 1935 . Elements of Chemistry Vol. i , 307 – 307 . London trans. T. Dallowe
- Boerhaave . 1935 . Elements of Chemistry Vol. i , 289 – 289 . London trans. T. Dallowe
- Boerhaave . 1935 . Elements of Chemistry Vol. i , 46 – 46 . London trans. T. Dallowe
- Boyle , Robert . 1673 . Essays … of Effluviums London in Works, ed. T. Birch, London, 1772, 2nd ed., vol. iii, p. 717.
- Boerhaave . 1935 . Elements of Chemistry Vol. i , 154 – 154 . London trans. T. Dallowe
- Boerhaave . 1935 . Elements of Chemistry Vol. i , 156 – 156 . London trans. T. Dallowe side note
- Boerhaave . 1935 . Elements of Chemistry Vol. i , London trans. T. Dallowe
- Homberg , W. 1702 . Observations faites par le moyen du verre ardent . Hist. Acad. Roy. Sci. , : 192 – 192 . Mém. Homberg was repeating a famous experiment first performed by S. C. Du Clos in 1667 before the Académie Royale des Sciences. Du Clos took antimony and heated it strongly, both at the focus of the burning mirror where it underwent a spectacular change, swelling and changing both form and colour, and also in the ordinary flame from charcoal where of course a similar change was observed. In both cases he found that the weight of the antimony increased by one twelfth, even though it had given off copious fumes in the process. (S. C. Du Clos, ‘Expériences de l'Augmentation du poids de certaines matières par la calcination’, Hist. de l'Acad. R. des Sci., Depuis … 1666 jusqu'à, 1699, Paris, 1733, I, 21–22.)
- Boerhaave . 1935 . Elements of Chemistry Vol. i , 211 – 212 . London trans. T. Dallowe
- Boerhaave . 1935 . Elements of Chemistry Vol. i , 205 – 205 . London trans. T. Dallowe
- Boerhaave . 1935 . Elements of Chemistry Vol. i , 292 – 292 . London trans. T. Dallowe
- Boerhaave . 1935 . Elements of Chemistry Vol. i , 202 – 202 . London trans. T. Dallowe
- Boerhaave . 1935 . Elements of Chemistry Vol. i , 199 – 199 . London trans. T. Dallowe
- Boerhaave . 1935 . Elements of Chemistry Vol. i , 207 – 207 . London trans. T. Dallowe
- Boerhaave . 1935 . Elements of Chemistry Vol. i , 204 – 204 . London trans. T. Dallowe
- Stahl defined phlogiston as the chemical principle of combustibility, whereas fire considered as an instrument had the status of a physical element. Phlogiston was chemically active because its properties changed when it became a constituent of a compound. The inflammability of free phlogiston lay concealed within the compound until it was placed in fire. When released, phlogiston regained its free state, and its inflammability. Partington The Intellectual Climate in Leiden in Boerhaave's time Boerhaave and his time ii 668 668 For an analysis of the impact of this view on eighteenth century French science, see the articles by M. Fichmann and R. Rappaport (footnotes 44 and 3 respectively).
- Bachelard , Gaston . 1964 . The Psychoanalysis of Fire 64 – 64 . London trans. A. C. Ross
- Fichmann , M. 1971 . French Stahlism and Chemical Studies of Air, 1750–1770 . Ambix , 18 : 101 – 101 .
Annals of Science
Volume 31, 1974 - Issue 6
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