- For a constructive survey of such approaches see the editor's introduction in Science, technology and economic growth in the eighteenth century Musson A.E. London 1972 J. D. Gould, Economic growth in history (1972, London), 295–377; and N. Rosenberg, ‘Factors affecting the diffusion of technology’, Explorations in entrepreneurial history, 10 (1972), 3–37.
- Kuhn , T.S. 1962 . The structure of scientific revolutions Chicago the additional chapter in the 1970 edition of that book, and his ‘The essential tension: tradition and innovation in scientific research’, in C. W. Taylor and F. Barron (eds.), Scientific creativity (1963, New York); W. O. Hagstrom, The scientific community (1965, New York); and M. J. Mulkay, The social process of innovation. A study in the sociology of science (1972, London).
- Studies of this sort are of great variety, and are to be found under several auspices, but would include Science and society, 1600–1900 Mathias Peter Cambridge 1972 D. S. L. Cardwell, The organisation of science in England (1957, London); Robert K. Merton, Science, technology and society in seventeenth century England (1938, reprinted 1970, New York); Joseph Ben-David, The scientist's role in society: a comparative study (1971, New Jersey); and Steven Shapin and Arnold Thackray, ‘Prosopography as a research tool in history of science: the British scientific community 1700–1900’, History of science, 12 (1974), 1–28. For detailed case studies in our period, see Arnold Thackray, ‘Natural knowledge in cultural context; the Manchester model’, American historical review, 79 (1974), 672–709; J. D. Bernal, Science in history, vol. 2 (1954, repr. 1969, Penguin Books), 509–567; and Steven Shapin, ‘Property, patronage and the politics of science: the founding of the Royal Society of Edinburgh’, Brit. jrnl. hist. sci., 7 (1974), 1–41, and his ‘Phrenological knowledge and the social structure of early nineteenth-century Edinburgh’, Annals of science, 32 (1975), 219–243.
- Schofield , Robert E. 1963 . The Lunar Society of Birmingham. A social history of provincial science and industry in eighteenth-century England Oxford
- Musson , A.E. and Robinson , E. 1969 . Science and technology in the Industrial Revolution Manchester
- Such a recognition represents the motif of the article by Shapin Thackray Shapin Steven Thackray Arnold Prosopography as a research tool in history of science: the British scientific community 1700–1900 History of science 1974 12 1 28
- Honourable exceptions in recent years include Berman Morris The early years of the Royal Institution, 1799–1810: a re-evaluation Science studies 1972 2 205 240 and J. N. Hays, ‘Science and Brougham's Society’, Annals of science, 20 (1964), 227–241, and his ‘Science in the city: the London institution, 1819–40’, Brit. jrnl. hist. sci., 7 (1974), 146–162. There is useful information in J. W. Hudson, The history of adult education (1851, London), 166–168; Musson and Robinson (footnote 5), 119–138 and passim; Nicholas Hans, New trends in education in the eighteenth century (1951, London), passim: and W. H. G. Armytage, Four hundred years of English education (1965, Cambridge), 55–59 and passim. An illuminating, unpublished paper by J. N. Hays, read at the meeting of the History of Science Society at Atlanta, Georgia, on 30 December 1975 and entitled ‘Popular science and popular technology: ambiguous ideology in early nineteenth-century Britain’, centres on the London and Royal Institutions, shows the variety of science in the metropolis in the period, and illustrates the manner in which institutional activities could form a cultural matrix.
- Shapin , Thackray , Shapin , Steven and Thackray , Arnold . 1974 . Prosopography as a research tool in history of science: the British scientific community 1700–1900 . History of science , 12 : 10 – 10 .
- Thackray , Shapin , Steven and Thackray , Arnold . 1974 . Prosopography as a research tool in history of science: the British scientific community 1700–1900 . History of science , 12 : 1 – 28 .
- Thackray , Shapin , Steven and Thackray , Arnold . 1974 . Prosopography as a research tool in history of science: the British scientific community 1700–1900 . History of science , 12 : 678 – 678 . Another problem in Thackray's paper emerges from the lack of a clear division between active and passive members (or, somewhat differently, scientific and non-scientific interests) in the prosopographical treatment as such. The implication that for analytical purposes there is little difference between, say, the non-publishing scientific lecturer and the individual simply enrolled within an institution which includes science, is repeated in Shapin and Thackray (footnote 3), 13, and requires explanation.
- Rudé , G. 1971 . Hanoverian London, 1714–1808 237 – 238 . London
- Rudé , G. 1971 . Hanoverian London, 1714–1808 79 – 80 . London
- Major sources for sections 2–4 include the following, and will not be noted again in detail unless quoted The observer 1790–1820 Philosophical magazine (1798–1835), Mechanics' magazine (1823–1830), The times (1820–1830), D.N.B., The morning herald (1787–1790), and The morning chronicle (1795–1800). To date, no collections of original manuscripts or other material on the Askesian Society has been located. The author's research is continuing on the basis of the Society's membership and scientific interests.
- For an idea of the earlier form see Wheeler T.S. Partington J.R. The life and work of William Higgins, chemist, 1763–1825 Oxford 1960 F. W. Gibbs, ‘Bryan Higgins and his circle’, Chemistry in Britain, 1 (1965), 60–65; and Edward R. Atkinson, ‘The atomic hypothesis of William Higgins’, Journal of chemical education, 17 (1940), 3–11. For the early London background, see Musson and Robinson (footnote 5), 119–125.
- July 1804 . The observer July , 1
- Accum arrived in London from Westphalia in 1793, and began lecturing in chemistry and natural philosophy at the Surrey Institute (see section 3 below) in 1803. Throughout this period he was a creative scientist in various areas, including crystallography, chemical reagents and the chemistry of adulteration, publishing his two texts A system of chemistry 1803 and An essay on the analysis of minerals (1804), in London. He was later the librarian of the Royal Institution, although a false charge of embezzlement forced him back to Europe in 1822.
- Joyce , Frederick . 1825 . Practical chemical mineralogy London and translated into French in the same year.
- D.N.B. Simmons S.F. Medical register London 1783 50 50
- Contrast the passing suggestion in D.N.B. under Garnett, with that of Cantor G.N. Thomas Young's lectures at the Royal Institution Notes and records of the Royal Society 1970 25 87 111 See also Henry Bence Jones, The Royal Institution, its founders and its first professors (1871, London).
- Garnett requires further study. See Public characters of 1799–1800: to be continued annually London 1799 415 424 The observer, 25 October 1801, 16 January 1803; and Philosophical magazine, (1) 13 (1802–03), 209–210.
- 1795 . Morning chronicle , May 16
- 1813 . Philosophical magazine , 41 ( 1 ) : 158 – 158 .
- 1806 . The observer , July 27
- Spiers , C.H. 1969 . William Thomas Brande, leather expert . Annals of science , 25 : 179 – 203 .
- The Crown and Anchor served as a centre for major political and cultural meetings far into the nineteenth century. The home of the conservative ‘Crown and Anchor Association’ which, in the period of republicanism of the 1790s, ‘noted and exaggerated the whispers of sober chambermaids and drunken ostlers alike’ Robertson C. Grant England under the Hanoverians London 1911 366 366 and in the early years of the next century proclaimed the cause of Burdett, Thelwall, Wardle and Cobbett. The first meeting of the London Mechanics' Institute was held in such a setting.
- 1806 . Philosophical magazine , 25 ( 1 ) : 374 – 374 .
- 1818 . Philosophical magazine , 51 ( 1 ) : 71 – 71 . See also E. G. R. Taylor, Mathematical practitioners of Hanoverian England (1966, Cambridge), 389. For Phillips see section 6 below.
- 1805 . Philosophical Magazine , 22 ( 1 ) : 85 – 88 . See also J. N. Hays ‘Institution’ (footnote 7).
- See D.N.B. entry for Cornelius Varley 1781–1873
- 1812 . Philosophical magazine , 39 ( 1 ) : 142 – 150 .
- Study of the Surrey Institution has been badly neglected. See Carnall G. The Surrey Institute and its successor Adult education 1953–54 26 197 208 and Notes and queries: a medium of inter-communication for literary men, artists, antiquaries …, (1) 2 (1850), 228, 404.
- In 1868 W. J. Goodwin made the claim that the young Michael Faraday acted as Tatum's assistant in a course of chemical lectures delivered in 1812 at Salisbury Court, Fleet Street Notes and queries 1868 1 2 483 483 See also L. Pearce Williams, ‘Michael Faraday's education in science’, Isis, 51 (1960), 515–530.
- 1823 . Philosophical magazine , 61 ( 1 ) : 133 – 133 .
- For examples of the relationship between independent lecturers and formal institutions see Inkster Ian Culture, institutions and urbanity: the itinerant science lecturer in Sheffield 1790–1850 Essays in the social and economic history of South Yorkshire Pollard S. Holmes C. 1976 forthcoming
- A short notice of the death of Singer can be found in Philosophical magazine 1817 50 1 75 75
- Hemming , John . 1835 . An address to the Philosophical Class of the Marylebone Literary and Scientific Institution London and Philosophical magazine, (1) 38 (1811), 306–307; (3) 4 (1834), 151.
- See Pettigrew Thomas Joseph Memoir of John C. Lettsom London 1817 3 J. J. Abraham, Biography of John Coakley Lettsom (1933, London); and Warren R. Dawson, Memoir of Pettigrew (1931, London).
- Most of Nightingale's publications were topographical, although, continuing the work of Brayley E.W. Rational stenography London 1823
- Significantly, Cooper was also a Unitarian polemicist; for example, his Misrepresentation corrected and calumny refuted: reply to false charges against Unitarians London 1840
- 1828 . The Times , January 5, 7 2 February 4, 6 January 1825.
- 1842 . The Athenaeum , February 12 By the later 1830s such associations as the City of London Literary and Scientific Institution and the Belgrave Literary and Scientific Institution advertised science courses of some length by such men as Robert Addams, W. Maugham and D. B. Reid (the latter of whom also gave regular chemical courses in both Edinburgh and London on an independent basis), and the standard appears to have been roughly that of the mechanics' institutes, but at considerably greater cost.
- 1828 . London magazine , 1 ( 3 ) : 1 – 13 .
- For the provincial context of such class or group cultural influence see Inkster Ian Science and the mechanics' institutes, 1820–50: the case of Sheffield Annals of science 1975 32 451 474 Steven Shapin and Barry Barnes, ‘Science, naturn and control: interpreting mechanics' institutes’, Social studies of science, 7 (1977), forthcoming; and Ian Inkster, ‘The social context of an educational movement: a revisionist approach to the English mechanics' institutes, 1820–50’ (forthcoming). By the 1830s, the host of known mechanics' institutes in the London area and their concentration upon science activities bears great witness to the strength of cultural tradition, and even a sketchy examination gives testimony to the London Mechanics' Institute, the London Literary and Scientific Institute, the Society for Promoting Practical Design, St. Pancras Literary and Scientific Institute, Tower Street Mutual Instruction Society, the Mutual Instruction Society, Milton Literary and Scientific Institution, Pestalozzian Institution (Worship Square), the Islington Mechanics' Institute, and the Westminster Literary, Scientific and Mechanics' Institution.
- Halévy , Elie . 1924 . England in 1815 486 – 587 . London English trans.
- Halévy , Elie . 1924 . England in 1815 565 – 565 . London English trans.
- Passing mention of the Askesian may be found in Musson Robinson Science and technology in the Industrial Revolution Manchester 1969 137 137 and A. E. Wales, ‘The life and work of Smithson Tennant, 1761–1815’ (M.Sc. thesis, University of Leeds, no date), chapter 1.
- 1800 . Philosophical magazine , 7 ( 1 ) : 355 – 355 .
- Bradshaw , Lucy , ed. 1846–47 . Life of William Allen with selections from correspondence Vol. 1 , 23 – 25 . London 3 vols.
- For details see Cripps E.C. Plough Court. The story of a notable pharmacy, 1715–1927 Allen and Hanbury Ltd. 1927 Helena Hall, William Allen (1953, London); and Josiah Forster, Extracts, life and writings of Joseph Gurney Bevan (1821, London).
- Bradshaw . 1846–47 . Life of William Allen with selections from correspondence Vol. 1 , 25 – 26 . London 3 vols.
- Bradshaw . 1846–47 . Life of William Allen with selections from correspondence Vol. 1 , 25 – 26 . London 3 vols.
- Bradshaw . 1846–47 . Life of William Allen with selections from correspondence Vol. 1 , 31 – 32 . London 3 vols. 39–42.
- Fordyce , Phillips . D.N.B. The public lectures of Fordyce were on both chemistry and medicine, and appear to have been extremely popular. The physician was made F.R.S. in 1776.
- 1799 . Philosophical magazine , 3 ( 1 ) : 76 – 76 . D.N.B.
- Bradshaw . 1846–47 . Life of William Allen with selections from correspondence Vol. 1 , 83 – 83 . London 3 vols.
- 1807 . Philosophical magazine , 29 ( 1 ) : 273 – 373 .
- In addition, Accum published in London Analysis of a course of lectures on minerals 1809 lectures which had been read at the Surrey Institute, and his A course of lectures on experimental chemistry and mineralogy (1810), obviously a result of his earlier, public courses.
- George Pearson (1751–1828), M.D., F.R.S., was a very important medical and scientific lecturer throughout this period. His private laboratory in Whitcomb Street was later moved to George Street (see section 2 above). Of 14 separate publications after 1773, 9 were devoted to science subjects, and included Heads and notes of a course of lectures on chemistry London 1806
- Bradshaw . 1846–47 . Life of William Allen with selections from correspondence Vol. 1 , 16 – 50 . London 3 vols. with reference to the year 1800. In fact, ‘Allen of Edinburgh’ is referred to, but this is most likely to refer to Thomas Allan, who wrote on both mineralogy and chemistry, attended Davy at the Royal Institution, and published, in 1811, his notes on Davy's Lectures there. His Names of minerals was published in Edinburgh in 1808. See his obituary in Philosophical magazine, (3) 3 (1833), 317–318.
- A number of the lesser publications of the group were devoted to improved instruments or techniques, including eudiometers, portable chamber blast furnaces, galvanic troughs, laboratory gas holders (‘based on the needs of friends for reasonable apparatus’) and electrometers. The information contained in this paragraph comes mostly from Philosophical magazine (passim) 1 56 58 and Bradshaw (footnote 48)
- For notices of the mineralogical branch see Philosophical magazine 1799 3 318 318 especially (1) (1) 6 (1801), 1–3, 369–372; (1) 9 (1801–02), 282–283; (1) 12 (1802–03), 284–287 (where membership is listed, including correspondents); and (1) 19 (1804), 85–90.
- Delvalle Lowry had been advertising frequent ‘Lessons on Mineralogy’, delivered independently at Gt. Titchfield Street, since 1817. The subsequent two volumes of 1822 went through several editions. The role of women as activists in popular science culture has been badly neglected. From 1804 Mrs. Bryan was advertising her ‘Course of Familiar Lectures on Natural Philosophy … for popular reception, and for clear, accurate and extensive information …’, given from her Blackheath Seminary The observer 1804–06 For Margaret Bryan see N. Hans (footnote 7), 203–204.
- Aldini both popularised and extended the initial work of his uncle. See his Pupilli G.C. Dissertation on the origin and development of the theory of animal electricity Galvani on electricity Green R.M. Cambridge, Mass. 1953 with an introduction by and Philosophical magazine, (1) 14 (1802–03), 364–365, 367–368; (1) 15 (1803), 93–96.
- Humphry Davy (1778–1829) came into contact with the Askesian almost immediately upon his arrival in London in 1799 from Beddoes's ‘Pneumatic Institute’ at Bristol. His first lectures to the Royal Institution were on electricity, and his first paper to the Royal Society entitled ‘An account of some galvanic combinations’. One of the first confidants of his discoveries was Pepys, to whom he wrote in November 1807, saying: ‘I have decomposed and recomposed the fixed alkilis [sic], (potash, soda) and discovered their bases to be two new inflamable substances very like metals …’. Further progress was achieved by using the new battery of J. G. Children. The Bakerian lecture of 19 November 1807 was the beginning of Davy's European reputation. See Philosophical magazine 1804 17 1 97 113 (1) 18 (1804), 358; (1) 20 (1805), 187, 289–303; (1) 29 (1807), 181, 372–373; (1) 31 (1808), 241; D.N.B. (Davy); Bradshaw (footnote 48), vol. 1, 44–71; M. E. Weeks, ‘The chemical contributions of William Allen’, iJournal of chemical education, 35 (1958), 70–73; and J. L. Sheean, ‘The beginnings of electrochemical activities’, ibid., 7 (1930), 33–42.
- 1800 . Philosophical magazine , 8 ( 1 ) : 21 – 29 . 70–78, 119–126, 211–221; (1) 13 (1803), 405–407.
- Cameron , H.C. 1954 . Mr Guy's hospital, 1726–1948 2 – 2 . London
- Campbell , J.M.H. 1925 . The history of the Physical Society . Guy's hospital gazette , : 107 – 119 . The society, having been formed in 1771, continuing in strength to the 1820s, and including as active members Marcet, Curry and Jenner, the former of whom was acknowledged by Pepys as being of great assistance to him in chemical experiments. See also Bradshaw (footnote 48), vol. 1, 59–61; and B. B. Cooper, Life of Sir Astley Cooper (2 vols.: 1843, London), 105–142, 236–239.
- Cole , G.D.H. 1938 . Persons and periods London ch. 4.
- For background information see Klingberg F.L. The anti-slavery movement in England London 1926 and R. Coupland, The British anti-slavery movement (1933, London). For an adequate summary account see Donald Read, The English provinces, 1760–1960 (1964, London) 39–42. For Askesian influence see William Allen, The duty of abstaining from the use of West India produce (1792, London); and L. Hugh Doncaster, Friends of humanity, with special reference to the Quaker, William Allen, 1770–1843 (1965, Dr. William's Trust, London).
- Bradshaw . 1846–47 . Life of William Allen with selections from correspondence Vol. 1 , 60 – 69 . London 3 vols.
- Clarkson , Thomas . 1806 . A portraiture of Quakerism Vol. 3 , London
- See generally the early upbringing of Allen as depicted in Bradshaw Life of William Allen with selections from correspondence London 1846–47 1 23 25 3 vols.
- Brayshaw , A. Neave . 1921 . The Quakers , : 160 – 171 . Woking
- Bevan , Joseph Gurney . 1800 . A refutation of some of the more modern misrepresentations of the Society of Friends London especially section III.
- Clarkson . 1806 . A portraiture of Quakerism Vol. 3 , 193 – 193 . London
- Clarkson . 1806 . A portraiture of Quakerism Vol. 3 , 228 – 228 . London A volume of Clarkson's book is extant (New South Wales Public Library, Sydney) which was owned by Benjamin Seebohm of Bradford. It has copious additional comments, one of which reads (inserted on pp. 422–423): ‘I have attended almost every lecture of the various itinerant Philosophers that have visited Sunderland for the last fifty years, and the greatest part of them have invariably observed that wherever they came, their Lectures were attended by more Quakers both Male and Female in proportion to their numbers, than of any other people and that they found them more desirious [sic] of information and in general better informed than others’. See also Bradshaw (footnote 73), 188 passim; and Hans (footnote 7), chs. 7–8.
- Bradshaw . 71 – 71 . vol. 1
- McLachlan , H. 1931 . English education under the Test Acts London and his Warrington Academy (1943, Manchester).
- Flinn , M.W. 1967 . “ Social theory and the Industrial Revolution ” . In Social theory and economic change Edited by: Burns , T. and Saul , S.B. 24 – 24 . London in An additional point in the argument is that in London especially rational dissent was weak, relative to the vast growth of the group in South Lancashire, South Yorkshire, and the Southern Counties of England, Cheshire and, slightly later, Derbyshire. See John D. Gray, The geography of religion in England (1971, London), especially pp. 181–183, 223–228.
- Webb , R.K. 1969 . Modern England, from the eighteenth century to the present 225 – 225 . London
- Henriques , Ursula . 1961 . Religious toleration in England, 1787–1833 209 – 214 . London
- Webb . 1969 . Modern England, from the eighteenth century to the present 147 – 147 . London
- Routley , Eric . 1960 . English religious dissent 165 – 165 . Cambridge See also R. G. Cowherd, The politics of English Dissent (1959, London).
- For descriptive examples see the papers by Robinson Eric The Derby Philosophical Society Annals of science 1953 9 359 367 ‘An English Jacobin: James Watt, Junior, 1769–1848’, Cambridge historical journal, 11 (1953–55), 349–355; and ‘The English “philosophes” and the French Revolution’, History today, 6 (1956), 116–121.
- Joyce , Jeremiah . 1794 . A sermon and appendix … An account of author's arrest for treason London
- He also published, in London Analysis of Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations 1797 and Dialogues in chemistry (1807).
- Patterson , A. Temple . 1954 . Radical Leicester 63 – 78 . Leicester Ian Inkster, ‘The development of a scientific community in Sheffield, 1790–1850: a network of people and interests’, Trans. Hunter's Archaeol. Society, 10 (1973), 99–131; and his forthcoming ‘The provincial context of Industrial Revolution culture: science and society in Derby, 1730–1830’.
- Cooper , Bransby B. 1843 . Life of Sir Astley Cooper Vol. 1 , 96 – 97 . London
- Bransby B. , Cooper . 1843 . Life of Sir Astley Cooper Vol. 1 , 211 – 213 . London 236–237.
- Caute , David . 1966 . The Left in Europe since 1789 46 – 46 . London N. Hans (footnote 7), 176–178; and C. Cestre, J. Thelwall (1906, London). As with Henry Redhead Yorke and John Gale Jones, Thelwall spent much effort in public lecturing on radical political themes, often under the guise of history or the ‘classics’, before forming his establishment for the teaching of elocution on ‘scientific’ principles. For examples see The observer, 8 March, 13 December 1795, 14 February, 25 September 1796, 10 May 1801; and Salisbury and Winchester journal, 18 July, 8 August 1808.
- Woodward , Horace B. 1907 . The history of the Geological Society of London 10 – 14 . London and Philosophical magazine, (1) 39 (1812), 140–142.
- Halevy . 1924 . England in 1815 558 – 558 . London English trans. See also M. J. S. Rudwick, ‘The foundation of the Geological Society of London, …’, Brit. jrnl. hist. sci., 1 (1962–63), 325–335.
- 1799 . Philosophical magazine , 3 ( 1 ) : 216 – 222 .
- Bradshaw . 1846–47 . Life of William Allen with selections from correspondence Vol. 1 , 63 – 71 . London 3 vols.
- 1846–47 . Life of William Allen with selections from correspondence Vol. 1 , 167 – 167 . London 3 vols. 38 ‘scientists’ met over a 3-day period. Children's laboratory at Tunbridge was used by Davy on several occasions during the former's development of improved electrical apparatus.
- 1807 . On the quantity of carbon in carbonic acid, and on the nature of the diamond . Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London , : 267 – 283 .
- 1807 . Philosophical magazine , 29 ( 1 ) : 116 – 126 . 181, 216–227, 315–324; (1) 31 (1808), 241; (1) 32 (1808), 185, 242–267, 369; and (1) 34 (1809), 26–30, 379–387.
- Apart from his regular independent courses of 24 lectures on chemistry at Cheapside (for example, see Philosophical magazine 1817 50 1 152 152 Phillips was also a lecturer to the Lock Hospital, the London Hospital and the London Theatre of Anatomy and Medicine, and had a long interest in industrial chemistry, bringing out a patent for the manufacture of sulphate of soda in 1835.
- 1827 . Annual reports of the Sheffield Literary and Philosophical Society , 4 : 4 – 4 . ‘Minutes of Council Meetings of Sheffield L.P.S.’, 23, 30 March 1826 (Sheffield Local Archives); and Sheffield iris, 12 September 1826.
- 1823 . The observer , November 2
- Illustrated by British Museum catalogue of printed Books, Annals of philosophy and Philosophical magazine.
- Rudé , George . 1952 . Paris and London in the eighteenth century 45 – 45 . London Fontana ed. 1970
Annals of Science
Volume 34, 1977 - Issue 1