- For a general account of the origins and early history of psychology, see, for example, Peters R.S. Brett's history of psychology London 1953
- The problem is illustrated by the attempt of J. F. Herbart to develop a science of psychology which would escape Kant's criticisms of the possibility of an experimental science of psychology. Herbart produced a formal, somewhat mathematical, science, though grounded upon experience. See, for example, the account of Herbart in Boring E.G. A history of experimental psychology New York 1950 250 261
- Bain , A. 1855 . The senses and the intellect vi – vi . London and his The emotions and the will (1859, London), iii, The ‘natural history method’ was a feature of many textbook presentations of psychology in the nineteenth century.
- Among the many accounts of the development of German psychology, E. G. Boring's is especially to be recommended Boring E.G. A history of experimental psychology New York 1950 250 261
- For Wundt's career, see for example, Titchener E.B. Wilhelm Wundt American journal of psychology 1921 32 161 178 (see also pp. 575–580), and Woundt's own autobiography, Erlebtes und Erkannles (1920, Stuttgart). See also ‘In memory of Wilhelm Wundt by his American students’, Psychological review, 28 (1921), 153–188. For a more recent account, see R. I. Watson, The great psychologists (2nd ed. 1968, Philadelphia), ch. 12.
- This is the description of Wundt given by William James in a letter to G. S. Hall (see Perry R.B. The thought and character of William James Boston 1935 2 17 17 (2 vols.
- A sociological version of the origin of experimental psychology which provides a crucial role for Wundt is given by Ben-David J. Collins R. Social factors in the origin of a new science: the case of psychology American sociological review 1966 31 451 465 However, the historical treatment they give is not entirely satisfactory. See, for example, Dorothy Ross, ‘On the origins of psychology’, American sociological review, 32 (1967), 466–469, with a reply by Ben-David and Collins on pp. 469–472.
- A list of the 186 theses in philosophy and psychology for which Wundt was the major advisor is given by Tinker M.A. American journal of psychology 1932 44 630 637 S. W. Fernberger discusses further those members of the list of graduates who were later to become ‘noted psychologists’ in Psychological bulletin, 30 (1933), 80–83.
- One of the better-known attacks on the thermochemistry tradition is made by Duhem P. Introduction à la mécanique chimique Paris 1893
- These matters are discussed more fully in my paper ‘Social factors in the origins of a new science: the case of physical chemistry’, to be published in Historical studies in the physical sciences
- For Ostwald's life, see for example Ostwald Grete Wilhelm Ostwald mein Vater Stuttgart 1953 Paul Walden, Wilhelm Ostwald (1904, Leipzig); and Ostwald's own autobiography, Lebenslinien eine Selbstbiographie (3 vols., 1926–27, Berlin).
- Gibbs , J.W. 1875–88 . On the equilibrium of heterogeneous substances . Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Sciences , 3 : 108 – 248 . 343–524; reprinted in J. W. Gibbs, Scientific papers (2 vols., 1906, London), vol. 1, 55–353.
- See, for example, the discussion in my Historical studies in the physical sciences
- See, for example Stratton G.M. Wundt and Leipzig in the [American Psychological] Association's early days Psychological review 1943 50 68 70 Stratton makes it clear that Wundt's influence was felt even by those who did not study under him or who sought to criticise him (pp. 68–69): Men who studied elsewhere in Europe or in America in those days—even under those who fought Wundt tooth and nail—never escaped Wundt; he could not be left out of lectures, conventions or the Arbeit of the young Dozent. It was a joy and distraction to point out how wrong Leipzig was. The [Philosophische] Studien carried the laboratory's work to the world; Wundt's own papers were thus made widely known, as also were those of such men as Fechner, Höffding, Kraepelin, Meumann, Külpe, Kiesow and many more. Those men represented one or another feature of the spirit of Wundt himself. See also ‘Wundt’ (footnote 7).
- The names were obtained from Boring E.G. Evolution and society Cambridge 1970 347 347 supplemented by M. A. Tinker (footnote 10), and the contributors to ‘Wundt’ (footnote 7). The biographical data were obtained from a variety of sources, which sometimes disagree. The date given for the Leipzig Ph.D. in both tables is according to a list of dates of graduation kindly supplied by Prof. Dr. Drucker, chief Archivist of the Karl Marx University of Leipzig. The most useful sources were the early editions of J. M. Cattell (ed.), American men of science, a biographical dictionary (1st ed. 1906, New York). Cattell in 1903 asked leading men in each science to rank their colleagues in order of merit, and obtained the average ranking of scientists in each science. The top scientists in each science were starred in American men of science. In the column headed ‘Rank in field’ an asterisk indicates students of Wundt who were starred in the first edition, and a dagger indicates those who were starred in later editions. The number indicates the place in the order of distinction of the 50 psychologists and philosophers starred in the first edition. The ranking is from Cattell, ‘Psychology in America’, Science, 70 (1929), 335–347, reprinted in A. T. Poffenberger, James McKeen Cattell, man of science (2 vols., 1947, Lancaster), vol. 2, 452. See also S. S. Visher, Scientists starred 1903–1943 in ‘American men of science’ (1947, Baltimore).
- The names were obtained from Bancroft W.D. Journal of chemical education 1933 10 609 609 F. E. Wall, Journal of chemical education, 25 (1948), 5; J. H. Wolfenden, Journal of chemical education, 50 (1973), 532; and from a check on the biographies of the leading Leipzig graduates in chemistry listed in S. S. Visher (footnote 17). The biographical data were obtained from a variety of sources, the fullest coverage of names being American men of science (footnote 17). An asterisk indicates those students of Ostwald whom Cattell listed in 1906 as being among the top 175 American chemists (Goodwin was starred on the physics list), and a dagger indicates those who were starred in later editions of American men of science. This information is from Visher. In addition to the students on the list, a number of other students at Leipzig who did not take degrees in Ostwald's laboratory seem to have been strongly influenced by his conception of physical chemistry. In particular, H. P. Talbot (Ph.D. 1890, organic chemistry) had sufficient contact with Ostwald and his school to redirect his interests. On his return to M.I.T., he introduced physical chemistry into the curriculum. Among those taking degrees in physics at Leipzig, W. D. Coolidge (Ph.D. 1899) and H. Hibbert (Ph.D. 1906) made contributions to physical chemistry. C. G. Fink (Science, 102 (1945), 268–269) notes that Hibbert had friends among Ostwald's students.
- For other studies of the transmission of disciplines to America around this time see, for example Coben S. The scientific establishment and the transmission of quantum mechanics to the United States, 1919–1932 American historical review 1971 76 442 466 and Jurgen Herbst, The German historical school in American scholarship. A study in the transfer of culture (1965, Ithaca, New York).
- For a discussion of these changes see, for example Hofstadter Richard Metzger W.P. The development of academic freedom in the United States New York 1955 and Laurence R. Veysey, The emergence of the American University (1965, Chicago).
- From the proposal of the bill as it was first introduced in 1857. As quoted in the article on Morrill J.S. Dictionary of American biography New York 1927–36 13 199 199 20 vols. and Frederick Rudolph, The American college and university: a history (1962, New York), 249.
- For discussions of German influence on American academic thought in general, see Ben-David J. The universities and the growth of science in Germany and the United States Minerva 1968–69 7 1 35 his The scientist's role in society: a comparative study (1971, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.); T. N. Bonner, American doctors and German universities: a chapter in international intellectual relations, 1870–1914 (1963, Lincoln, Nebraska); Abraham Flexner, Universities, American, English, Germany (1930, New York); the early chapters of J. Herbst (footnote 19); L. R. Veysey (footnote 20); and W. G. Waldeyer, ‘Relations between the United States and Germany, especially in the field of science’, Annual report of the Smithsonian Institution, (1905), 533–547.
- Cattell , J.M. 1974 . “ Psychology in America ” . In Between science and religion 337 – 337 . New Haven and London
- For the influence of Liebig, Wöhler and German chemistry on mid-nineteenth-century American chemistry see Browne C.A. The history of chemical education in America between the years of 1820 and 1870 Journal of chemical education 1932 9 696 728 Margaret W. Rossiter, The emergence of agricultural science: Justus Liebig and the Americans, 1840–1880 (1975, New Haven and London); Edgar F. Smith, Chemistry in America (1914, New York); and H. S. van Klooster, ‘Friedrich Wöhler and his American pupils’, Journal of chemical education, 21 (1944), 158–170. A good statistical impression of the importance of German training in late-nineteenth-century American chemistry is given by S. S. Visher's statistics (footnote 17), 285 on the source of doctoral training of chemists starred in the first edition of American men of science. Of the 126 who gained a doctoral degree, 72 did so in America and 45 in Germany. The most important universities producing these graduates in America were Johns Hopkins (18) and Harvard (10), and in Germany, Göttingen (16), Heidelberg (11) and Leipzig (10).
- This included the fare Veysey L.R. The development of academic freedom in the United States New York 1955 130 130
- Herbst , J. 1971 . The scientific establishment and the transmission of quantum mechanics to the United States, 1919–1932 . American historical review , 76 : 11 – 11 .
- See, for example, the data for Göttingen University in Shumway D.B. The American students of the university of Göttingen German American annals 1910 8 171 254 September–December
- See, for example Veysey L.R. The development of academic freedom in the United States New York 1955 131 131
- See, for example, the list of graduates and the discussion in Tinker M.A. Fernberger S.W. American journal of psychology 1932 44 630 637 Tinker states that inspectionof the names suggests that of the 186 theses, 136 were German and Austrian, and only 14 were American. However, foreigners were more proininent among the 61 psychological theses before 1900–01. Fernberger finds that of the 19 who became ‘noted psychologists’, 10 were American, and 3 more (Münsterberg, Titchener and Kirschmann) spent most of their later career in North America. Tinker's list shows that Wundt's laboratory was rather more dominated by Germans in the years after 1900. For reminiscences ab out the proportion of foreigners in Wundt's laboratory, see, for example, ‘Wundt’ (footnote 7).
- For remarks on the early years in Ostwald's laboratory, see, for example Arrhenius S. Electrolytic dissociation Journal of the American Chemical Society 1912 34 363 363 and J. Walker, ‘Autobiographical notes’, quoted in the Walker obituary, Journal of the Chemical Society, (1935), 1350.
- Some indication of the importance of Ostwald's students in the teaching of physical chemistry is given in a table which surveys the teaching of chemistry in the U.S.A. in 1901, in Twenty-fifth anniversary of the American Chemical Society Easton, Pa. 1901 102 113 Of the 555 students listed as studying physical chemistry in 1901, at least 245 were at an institution with a member of staff who had studied with Ostwald in Leipzig. The students of Ostwald's students must have been on the faculty on many of the remaining institutions. For experimental psychology, a numerical indication of the importance of those who associated with Wundt is given by an examination of J. M. Cattell's data on the 50 ‘most eminent’ American psychologists of 1903. (For the list of 53 names, and the methods by which they were selected, see, for example, Cattell (footnote 23), 451–452.) At that time, the American Psychological Association had 135 members, so that the 50 most eminent is a good sample of the field. Ten of the 50 were primarily philosophers rather than psychologists. Of the remaining 40, at least 13 had worked at Leipzig. (According to Cattell, ‘In memory of Wilhelm Wundt’, Psychological review, 28 (1921), 156, 18 of the top 50 were in Leipzig, but I have not confirmed all of them.) Using the table of masters and pupils compiled by M. D. Boring and E. G. Boring (‘Masters and pupils among the American psychologists’, American journal of psychology, 61 (1948), 527–534), of the remaining 27, 16 can be identified as students of Wundt's students. Thus only 11 eminent psychologists did not work with Wundt or acknowledge one of his students as their main teacher.
- Bancroft W.D. A half-century of chemistry in America, 1876–1926 Browne C.A. EastonPa.1926 89 89 in (special issue of the Journal of the American Chemical Society, 45 (1926), no. 8a).
- See the table of chemistry in the Twenty-fifth anniversary Easton, Pa. 1901 108 108
- These remarks are based on a study of the institutional affiliations of the contributors to the first five volumes of the Journal of physical chemistry 1896–1901
- For a biographical account of Titchener see Boring E.G. Edward Bradford Titchener, 1867–1927 American journal of psychology 1927 38 489 506 and his (footnote 4), 410–420.
- Boring , E.G. 1970 . Evolution and society 412 – 420 . Cambridge
- Among general discussions comparing and contrasting American psychology with the Leipzig pattern see Boring E.G. The influence of evolutionary theory on psychological thought History, psychology and science, selected papers New York 1963 159 184 in and D. Ross, ‘The “Zeitgeist” and American psychology’, Journal of the history of behavioural sciences, 5 (1969), 256–262.
- A useful overview of the history of American psychology is provided by Misiak Henryk Sexton V.S. History of psychology: an overview New York and London 1966 chs. 10–12. For accounts of early American psychology, see R. C. Davis, ‘American psychology, 1800–1885’, Psychological review, 43 (1936), 471–493; J. W. Fay, American psychology before William James (1939, New Brunswick, N.J.); and A. A. Roback, A history of American psychology (rev ed. 1964, New York). For a general account of the institutionalization of American psychology see, in addition to Misiak and Sexon, T. M. Camfield, ‘The professionalization of American psychology, 1870–1917’, Journal of the history of behavioural sciences, 9 (1973), 66–75.
- Porter , Noah . 1868 . The human intellect New York and his The elements of intellectual science (1871, New York).
- Baldwin , J.M. 1926 . Between two wars Vol. 1 , 21 – 21 . Boston 2 vols.
- McCosh , James . 1886 . Psychology: the cognitive powers New York and his Psychology: the motive powers (1887, New York).
- Mills , E.S. 1969 . George Trumbell Ladd. Pioneer American psychologist 103 – 103 . Cleveland
- See, for example, the reviews of Ladd's Elements of physiological psychology 1887 by G. S. Hall in American journal of psychology, 1 (1887), 159–164.
- The most useful account of James and his influence is Perry R.B. The historiographic and ideological contexts of the nineteenth-century debate on man's place in nature Changing perspectives in the history of science Teich M. Young R.M. London 1973
- James William The principles of psychology New York1950 1 192 192 2 vols. 193
- Taine H.A. Del'intelligence Paris1870 2 vols. translated by T. D. Haye as On intelligence (1871, London).
- See Boring M.D. Boring E.G. Genesis and geology New York 1959
- In addition to his The principles of psychology, see James W. A place for psychology as a “natural science” Philosophical review 1892 1 146 193 This was part of an exchange with G. T. Ladd. See also Ladd, ‘Psychology and a so-called “natural science”’, Philosophical review, 1 (1892), 24–53; and James's review of Ladd's Psychology: descriptive and explanatory (1894, New York), in Psychological review, 1 (1894), 286–293, and Ladd's reply on pp. 392–395.
- The best biographical account of Hall's G.S. G. Stanley Hall. The psychologist as prophet Chicago 1972 life is Dorothy Ross Hall wrote a somewhat inaccurate autobiography, Life and confessions of a psychologist (1923, New York).
- See, for example Ross D. G. Stanley Hall. The psychologist as prophet Chicago 1972 chs. 9 and 10.
- Hall , G.S. 1972 . G. Stanley Hall. The psychologist as prophet 226 – 226 . Chicago
- See Ross D. G. Stanley Hall. The psychologist as prophet Chicago 1972
- The extravagance of Hall's claims to priority in American psychology caused some controversy; see Hall Editorial American journal of psychology 1895 7 1 8 James replied in ‘Experimental psychology in America’, Science, n.s., 2 (1895), 626–627. The matter is reviewed by R. B. Perry (footnote 8), vol. 2, 7–15.
- See, for example, James's remarks in a letter to Stumpf in 1893 Perry R.B. The historiographic and ideological contexts of the nineteenth-century debate on man's place in nature Changing perspectives in the history of science Teich M. Young R.M. London 1973 2 186 186
- For historical accounts of the American Psychological Association see Fernberger Samuel The American Psychological Association. A historical summary, 1892–1930 Psychological bulletin 1932 29 1 89 and his ‘The American Psychological Association, 1892–1942’, Psychological review, 50 (1943), 33–60. See also W. Dennis and E. G. Boring, ‘The founding of the A.P.A.’, American psychologist, 7 (1952), 95–97.
- See the account in Ross D. G. Stanley Hall. The psychologist as prophet Chicago 1972 especially ch. 13, ‘Professional quarrels’.
- Ross . 1972 . G. Stanley Hall. The psychologist as prophet 236 – 242 . Chicago provides a good account of the manoeuvering behind the scenes.
- Dewey , John . 1887 . Psychology New York
- Baldwin J.M. Between two wars Boston1926 provides autobiographical material on his life in and in C. A. Murchison (ed.), A history of psychology in autobiography (1930, London), vol. 1, 1–30.
- On Cattell, see Poffenberger A.T. Between science and religion New Haven and London 1974 which collects Cattell's scientific papers and adds a brief biography. See also E. G. Boring (footnote 4), 532–540. Cattell's paper ‘Early psychological laboratories’, Science, 67 (1928), 543–548, is written autobiographically.
- See, for example Boring E.G. Evolution and society Cambridge 1970 532 532
- For example, Cattell's 1904 address at the Fair St. Louis World's Scientific monthly 1904 66 176 186 is widely cited as anticipating behaviourism in many important ways.
- For historical accounts of the development of psychological laboratories in America see Baldwin J.M. Psychology past and present Psychological review 1894 1 363 391 J. M. Cattell (footnote 65); E. B. Delabarre, ‘Les laboratoires de psychologie en Amérique’, L'année psychologique, 1 (1894), 209–255; C. R. Garvey, ‘List of American psychological laboratories’, Psychological Bulletin, 26 (1929), 652–660; C. A. Ruckmich, ‘The history and status of psychology in the United States’, American journal of psychology, 23 (1912), 517–531; and his ‘Development of laboratory equipment in psychology in the United States’, American journal of psychology, 37 (1926), 582–592.
- On the importance of religion in the emergence of the American form of the new psychology, see Ross D. The Leslie affair: careers, kirk and politics in Edinburgh in 1805 Scottish historical review 1975 54
- Wolfe , H.K. 1895 . The new psychology in undergraduate work . Psychological review , 2 : 382 – 387 .
- For a useful general discussion on the significance of educational interests in the development of the distinctive form of American psychology, see Ross D. The Leslie affair: careers, kirk and politics in Edinburgh in 1805 Scottish historical review 1975 54
- A count of the country of origin of titles under the general psychological headings in Dictionary of philosophy and psychology Baldwin J.M. New York 1901–05 3 3 vols. 2, Bibliography, shows that American publications on child psychology in the last decades of the nineteenth century was more than double that in any other country, and also far exceeded American publications in any other of the general headings used in the bibliography.
- For an historical account of the history of the mental texting movement see Boring E.G. Evolution and society Cambridge 1970 570 578
Annals of Science
Volume 34, 1977 - Issue 3
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