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The financial basis of french scientific education and scientific institutions in Paris, 1790–1815

Margaret Bradley Unit for the History, Philosophy and Social Relations of Science, Physics Laboratory, University of Kent at Canterbury, Kent, CT2 7NR, England
Pages 451-491 | Received 27 Nov 1978, Published online: 22 Aug 2006

  • See the details of state expenditure in an 7 in Science in France in the revolutionary era described by Thomas Bugge Crosland M.P. Cambridge, Mass. 1969 152 159
  • An example of this can be seen from a bill for repairs to the Agence tem poraire des poids et mesures. The sum requested amounted to 30,500 francs assignats nominal value, but this sum ‘must be paid at fixed value’—and the sum was assessed at 1,560 francs 70. See Bill of 17 floréal an 4 (6 May 1796), no. 60 Burean des poids et mesures. Archires nationales (hereafter ‘AN’). F4 2556. Similarly, on 25 pluviôse an 4 (14 February 1796), for Citoyen Andrieux, ‘The sum of 40 livres metallic value convertible to assignats at the current rate, the said sum payable on this basis at 10 millions metallic value’ (AN, F4 2556).
  • Compte présenté au Directoire exécutif par le Ministre de l'Intérieur pour les dépenses de son département pendant l'an 6 Paris Fructidor an VII, Bibliothèque Nationale), Lf 132 5 (folio). (‘Lf’ is the catalogue reference).
  • See Bosher J.F. French finances 1770–1795, from business to bureaucracy Cambridge 1970 303 303 Other sources of information on this period are: Marcel Marion, Histoire financière de la France depuis 1715 (6 vols., Paris, 1927), and Pierre Caron, Tableaux de dépreciation du papier-monnaie (Paris, 1909).
  • Braesch , F. 1934 . Finance et monnaire révolutionnaires Vol. 1 , 12 – 12 . Nancy 2 vols.
  • Bouchary , J. 1937 . Le marché des changes de Paris à la fin du XVIIIe siècle 1778–1800 93 – 93 . Paris
  • Marion . 1970 . French finances 1770–1795, from business to bureaucracy Vol. 3 , xi – xi . Cambridge
  • Bosher . 1970 . French finances 1770–1795, from business to bureaucracy 314 – 314 . Cambridge
  • Bosher . 1970 . French finances 1770–1795, from business to bureaucracy 313 – 313 . Cambridge
  • Stourm , R. 1902 . Les finances du consulat 61 – 61 . Paris
  • Stourm , R. 1902 . Les finances du consulat 96 – 101 . Paris
  • Marion . 1970 . French finances 1770–1795, from business to bureaucracy Vol. 4 , 163 – 163 . Cambridge
  • Marion . 1970 . French finances 1770–1795, from business to bureaucracy Vol. 4 , 229 – 229 . Cambridge
  • Bosher . 1970 . French finances 1770–1795, from business to bureaucracy 317 – 317 . Cambridge
  • Marion . 1970 . French finances 1770–1795, from business to bureaucracy Vol. 4 , 276 – 276 . Cambridge
  • Marion . 1970 . French finances 1770–1795, from business to bureaucracy Vol. 4 , 324 – 324 . Cambridge
  • Marion . 1970 . French finances 1770–1795, from business to bureaucracy Vol. 4 , 371 – 371 . Cambridge
  • Crosland , M.P. , ed. 1975 . The emergence of science in Western Europe 144 – 144 . London
  • September 1794 . Procès-verbaux des séances de la Convention Nationale, 15 fructidor an 2 September , 291 – 291 . 1 ‘Rapport sur l'école centrale’
  • Guillaume , M.J. , ed. Procès-verbaux de la Commission d'Instruction Publique Vol. 1 , 604 – 604 . (This source is cited hereafter as ‘P.V.C.I.P.’). See also Archives parlementaires. vol. 68 (July 1793). 165.
  • 1793 . Moniteur , 4 : 554 – 554 .
  • See Bulletin des lois, Convention, lère série, an IV, Vendémiaire-Brumaire 6 1198 (Septembre–Octobre) law of 30 vendémiaire an 4 (22 October 1795).
  • 1794 . P.V.C.I.P. , 5 October : 157 – 157 . 19
  • 1794 . P.V.C.I.P. , 5 October : 269 – 269 . 19
  • 1794 . P.V.C.I.P. , 6 October : 136 – 136 . 19
  • For an indication of the type of materials taken, see Bradley M. The facilities for practical instruction in science during the early years of the Ecole polytechnique Annals of science 1976 33 425 446
  • AN, F17 1306–1307 Extrait du procès-verbal, Convention Nationale, 28 fructidor an 2 1794 September 14 ‘La Convention Nationale charge tous les comités et tous les membres de méditer sur les moyens à prendre pour vivifier l'agriculture, l'industrie, les arts, les sciences et le commerce, et de lui présenter leurs vues sur cet objet important, qu'elle recommande à la discussion de toutes les sociétés populaires. Elle invite tous les citoyens de s'en occuper et de lui faire parvenir le résultat de leur méditation’.
  • AN, F17 1306–1307 Procès-verbal, Convention Nationale, 19 vendémiaire an 3 1794 October 10
  • AN, F17 1014 ‘Qui sursoit à la vente de tous les édifices etc.’, 25 fructidor an 5 1797 September 11 ‘Le Conseil des Cinq Cents, considérant qu'il est instant de conserver toutes les ressources dont la nation a besoin pour l'organisation définitive de l'instruction publique, déclare qu'il y a urgence … Jusqu'à l'organisation définitive d'un plan d'instruction il est sursis à la vente de tous les édifices comme sous le nom de collèges, maisons d'école et généralement de tous les bâtiments et dépendances servant ou ayant servi à l'enseignement public’. Apparently, buildings had been sold which in fact, were reserved for the education programme, and the revenue of others was going to the receivers of the national domains, so that ‘teachers and pupils, so-called scholars lack the essentials’. See Archives parlementaires, vol. 8 (February 1793), 395–396.
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 5 xviii – xviii . (intro.)
  • 1793 . Moniteur , 17 August : 359 – 359 . 11
  • 1793 . Moniteur , 17 August : 393 – 393 . 15
  • AN, F30 105 Rapport de la Trésorerie Nationale an 4 1796
  • 1794 . Moniteur , 22 December : 727 – 729 . 13
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 1 479 – 481 . For further historical details, see J. P. F. Deleuze, Histoire et description du Muséum (2 vols., Paris, 1823); and P. A. Cap, Le Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle (2 vols., Paris, 1854), vol. 1.
  • See P.V.C.I.P. 1 481 486
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 2 375 – 376 .
  • 1793 . P.V.C.I.P. , October : 527 – 573 . 5
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 3 319 – 319 .
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 4 440 – 445 .
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 3 198 – 199 .
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 2 390 – 392 .
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 2 821 – 821 .
  • 1794 . Moniteur , 22 December : 726 – 732 . 13
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 4 440 – 440 . He had already acquired a good reputation for his design of the corn market.
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 5 275 – 281 .
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 6 504 – 504 .
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 6 540 – 540 .
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 6 544 – 544 .
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 6 680 – 680 .
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 6 695 – 695 .
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 6 860 – 861 .
  • AN, F4 1020. Bugge Science in France in the revolutionary era described by Thomas Bugge Cambridge, Mass. 1969 158 158 also mentions an additional sum of 150,000 francs for this year.
  • On sols see footnote 50. In his The anatomy of a scientific institution. The Paris Academy of Sciences. 1666–1803 London 1971 196 196 R. Hahn gives a figure of 93,158 livres 10 sols, but he also states: ‘In contrast to reductions proposed in other parts of the budget, the [Finance] Committee recommended that appropriations for academies be maintained and even increased by a small amount’. Hahn's figure is the January proposal, and further discussion ensued on 14 August following. See P.V.C.I.P. (footnote 21), vol. 5, 8 May 1798.
  • For details of this period within the Académie des sciences and the Institut, see R. Hahn ibid: Chapin S.L. The Academy of Sciences during the eighteenth century: an astronomical appraisal French historical studies 1968 5 371 404 P. Gauja, ‘Les origines de l'Académie des Sciences de Paris’, Institut de France, Académie des Sciences, troisième centenaire, 1666–1966 (Paris 1967), 1–51; and J. Fayet, La révolution française et la science 1789–1795 (Paris, 1960).
  • 1790 . P.V.C.I.P. , 5 May : 552 – 552 . 8 Also see Hahn (footnote 72), 82, with regard to later attempts at collaboration with overseas countries.
  • 1793 . P.V.C.I.P. , 1 May : 442 – 442 . 5
  • 1793 . P.V.C.I.P. , 1 May : 458 – 458 . 22
  • 1793 . P.V.C.I.P. , 2 August : 250 – 256 . 8
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 4 1011 – 1013 . ‘Authorised expenses for year 2’ The amount is indicated in livres, sols and deniers.
  • 1794 . Moniteur , 22 December : 665 – 665 . 6 and Hahn (footnote 72), 248–251.
  • 1795 . P.V.C.I.P. , 5 June : 339 – 340 . 24
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 6 335 – 335 .
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 339 – 339 . fn. 90.
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 576 – 576 . fn. 89.
  • P. V. C. I. P. , 6 645 – 645 . Guillaume comments that it may be assumed that the idea of dividing the Institute into three classes, as was subsequently done on 15 October 1795 (see vol. 5, 796–797), may be attributed to Fourcroy.
  • 1796 . Moniteur , 28 April : 137 – 137 . 6
  • AN, F17A 1138 Mémoire et pétition présentés à l'Institut national des sciences et des arts, par le citoyen Montu, séance du 16 thermidor an VI 1798 July 3
  • AN, F17A 1015. See Hahn The anatomy of a scientific institution. The Paris Academy of Sciences. 1666–1803 London 1971 310 310 and M. P. Crosland, The Society of Arcueil: a view of French science at the time of Napoleon I (London, 1967), 151–152
  • 1790 . Moniteur , 4 April : 240 – 241 . 30 For further details see G. Bigourdan, Le système métrique des poids et mesures (Paris, 1901); A. Birembaut, ‘Les deux déterminations de l'unité de masse du système métrique’, Revue d'histoire des sciences, 12 (1959), 25–54; A. Favre. Les origines du système métrique (Paris, 1931); and M. P. Crosland, ‘The Paris Congress on definitive metric standards (1798–1799)—the first international scientific congress?’, Isis, 60 (1969), 226–231.
  • 1793 . P.V.C.I.P. , 2 August : 318 – 319 . 12 Lavoisier had written to Arbogast on 11 August 1793, in connection with the finances. Lavoisier was treasurer of the Academie des sciences, and stated: ‘The funds to hand will soon be insufficient to meet the needs of Delambre and Méchain, and to pay the technicians … they are not worried, since they count on the loyalty of the nation for which they have worked’.
  • 1793 . P.V.C.I.P. , 2 October : 528 – 529 . 1
  • See Fayet The Academy of Sciences during the eighteenth century: an astronomical appraisal French historical studies 1968 5 462 462
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 4 1013 – 1013 .
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 5 105 – 105 .
  • 1795 . Moniteur , 24 April 10
  • 1795 . Moniteur , 24 13 and 14 April
  • 1795 . Moniteur , 24 13 and 14 April
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 5 314 – 315 .
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 6 620 – 620 .
  • As in Mémoire et pétition présentés à l'Institut national des sciences et des arts, par le citoyen Montu, séance du 16 thermidor an VI 1798 July 3
  • AN, F12 217 Circulaire aux rédacteurs et aux journaux floréal an May 1799 7 29 18
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 7 328 – 328 .
  • AN, F4 366. The enormous difficulties of budgeting during 1795 and 1796 were expressed in a 1795 report: ‘The extent of the means of carrying out the work of the agency, is inevitably dependent on its primary sources. We have already pointed out to the Committee the extent to which these are limited. They grow daily more so. It is impossible to base any estimate on a currency whose value changes every day …’ (AN, F17 1383 Rapport de l'agence temporaire des poids et mesures au Comité de l'instruction publique vendémiaire an October 1795 4 16 8
  • These figures can be found on microfilm at the AN, F12 217–220 Bugge Science in France in the revolutionary era described by Thomas Bugge Cambridge, Mass. 1969 158 158 also mentions a grant of 1,000,000 francs in 1798 ‘for construction of weights and measures as standards and as models to be sent to the departments’.
  • AN Rapport de l'agence temporaire des poids et mesures au Comité de l'instruction publique vendémiaire an October 1795 4 16 8
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 6 211 – 211 .
  • See Fayet J. The Academy of Sciences during the eighteenth century: an astronomical appraisal French historical studies 1968 5 462 462 For other historical details, J. D. Cassini, Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire des sciences et à celle de l'Observatoire Royal de Paris (Paris, 1810); and J. J. Lalande, Bibliographie astronomique: avec l'histoire de l'astronomie depuis 1781 jusqu'à 1802 (Paris, 1803).
  • AN, F17 3718 Rapport, présenté à la commission d'organisation des observatoires au nom de la sous commission désignée par elle et approuvé par la Commission 1882 May 8
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 2 227 – 227 .
  • 1794 . P.V.C.I.P. , 5 December : 309 – 309 . 10
  • AN, F17 1306–1307 27 fructidor an 2 1794 September 13 Perry au Comité d'instruction publique
  • 1795 . P.V.C.I.P. , 6 April : 66 – 66 . 10
  • See Fayet The Academy of Sciences during the eighteenth century: an astronomical appraisal French historical studies 1968 5 419 419
  • 1795 . P.V.C.I.P. , 6 April : 66 – 66 . ‘Aperçu des dépenses’, 10
  • AN, F4* 362 362
  • For an indication of how the books were distributed and the conditions, see Bradley M. An early science library and the provision of textbooks: the Ecole Polytechnique 1794 1815 Libri. 1976 26 165 180
  • AN, F4 1246. There is some explanation of this provided in AN, ADXVIII F13: ‘The funds decreed for an 7 were only 10,000 fr. and the inadequacy of this grant was an obstacle to the production of instruments and the arrangement of the galleries. The expenses of acquisition were based on the modest funds accorded for the collection of artistic objects’. (For an explanation of AN cataloguing, see Caron P. Manuel pratique pour l'étude de la rérolution française Paris 1912 68 75
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 5 632 – 633 .
  • 1790 . Moniteur. , 4 June 5 See also F. B. Artz. The development of technical education in France, 1500–1850 (Cambridge, Mass., 1966): and J. Petot. Histoire de l'administration des ponts et chaussées (1599–1815) (Paris. 1858).
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 5 632 – 633 . A decree of 9 March 1793 had stipulated that ‘those students of the Ecole des Ponts et Chaussées with sufficient knowledge will be employed by the Ministère de la guerre Corps du Génie, the rest will remain at the school … will continue their studies without being obliged to serve as national volunteers’ (Archives parlementaires, vol. 60 (9 March 1793), 22).
  • Fourey , A. 1828 . Histoire de l'Ecole Polytechnique 9 – 9 . Paris
  • See P.V.C.I.P. 5 632 633
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 5 635 – 636 .
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 5 651 – 652 .
  • 1794 . Moniteur , 2 September : 74 – 75 . 29
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 5 632 – 633 .
  • October 1795 . Bulletin des lois, Convention, lère série, an IV, vendémiare-brumaire Vol. 6 , October , (September–October) law of 30 vendémiaire an 4 (22
  • March 1795 . “ Mémoire sur l'établissement primitif de l'école ” . In Ecole des ponts et chaussées March , Archives, Ms. 2432 22 ventôse an 3 (12
  • March 1795 . “ Mémoire sur l'établissement primitif de l'école ” . In Ecole des ponts et chaussées March , Archives, Ms. 2154. 22 ventôse an 3 (12
  • March 1795 . “ Mémoire sur l'établissement primitif de l'école ” . In Ecole des ponts et chaussées March , Archives, Ms. 2432. 22 ventôse an 3 (12
  • March 1795 . “ Mémoire sur l'établissement primitif de l'école ” . In Ecole des ponts et chaussées March , Archives, Ms. 2432, 22 ventôse an 3 (12
  • March 1795 . “ Mémoire sur l'établissement primitif de l'école ” . In Ecole des ponts et chaussées March , Archives, Ms. 2432, 22 ventôse an 3 (12
  • March 1795 . “ Mémoire sur l'établissement primitif de l'école ” . In Ecole des ponts et chaussées March , Archives, Ms. 2432, 22 ventôse an 3 (12
  • March 1795 . “ Mémoire sur l'établissement primitif de l'école ” . In Ecole des ponts et chaussées March , Archives, Ms. 2630. 22 ventôse an 3 (12
  • March 1795 . “ Mémoire sur l'établissement primitif de l'école ” . In Ecole des ponts et chaussées March , Archives, Ms. 2432, 22 ventôse an 3 (12
  • March 1795 . “ Mémoire sur l'établissement primitif de l'école ” . In Ecole des ponts et chaussées March , Archives, Ms. 2432, 22 ventôse an 3 (12
  • AN, F14 1302a, Observations sur un écrit Vues sur le Jardin royale des plantes Baudouin Paris 1789 Par M. Sage, directeur de l'Ecole royale des mines, 1790). The Monnaie is the Hôtel des monnaies, in which the first mining school was established.
  • AN, F14 1302a Notes sur l'organisation du Corps impérial des mines en 1810
  • AN, F17 1139 Rapport sur la situation de l'Ecole polytechnique … Ingénieurs des mines
  • See Observations sur un écrit Vues sur le Jardin royale des plantes Baudouin Paris 1789
  • 1792 . Archives parlementaires , 56 December : 64 – 64 . 30
  • 1793 . Archives parlementaires , 56 January : 666 – 666 . 9
  • 1794 . Moniteur , 22 September : 75 – 75 . 29 For further information on the history of the Ecole des mines see L. Aguillon. ‘L'Ecole des Mines de Paris, notice historique’, Annales des mines, (8) 15 (1889). 433–686.
  • 1794 . Moniteur , 20 April : 215 – 215 . 15 The ‘mining’ referred to here is probably in the mediaeval sense and connected with fortifications.
  • AN, F14 1302a, poster. Rapport sur l'organisation de l'Ecole des Mines 19 germinal an 2 1794 April 8
  • AN, F14 1302a. ‘Somme nécessaire pour assurer le service des mines’. No sum is actually quoted
  • 1795 . Bulletin des lois, Convention. lère serie. an IV, vendémiare-brumaire , 6 ( 1196 ) October (September–October) law of 30 rendémiaire an 4 (22
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 6 844 – 845 .
  • AN, F17 1139, dossier 18 Avis du Conseil des Mines 22 prairial an 6 1798 June 10
  • 1795 . P.V.C.I.P. , 6 October : 828 – 828 . 1 brumaire an 4 (23
  • AN, F17 1139, an 8 (1800) Observations générales sur l'organisation actuelle du Conseil des Mines
  • AN, F14 1302 Note sur l'organisation du corps impérial des mines The report is undated, but is probably of the Bourbon Restoration period, as references are made to restitutions of property.
  • See P.V.C.I.P. 5 632 633
  • 1794 . P.V.C.I.P. , 4 March : 1006 – 1007 . 21 ventôse an 2 (11 Other works providing information on this school are G. Pinet, Histoire de l'Ecole polytechnique (Paris, Baudry, 1887); and A. Fourcy (footnote 134). For a more modern assessment, see L. Pearce Williams ‘Science, education and Napoleon 1’, Isis, 47 (1956), 369–382; his ‘Science, education and the French Revolution’, Isis, 44 (1953), 311–330; and W. A. Smeaton, ‘The early history of laboratory instruction in chemistry at the Ecole polytechnique, Paris, and elsewhere’, Annals of science, 10 (1954), 224–233.
  • 1794 . Moniteur , 22 September : 74 – 78 . 29
  • See P.V.C.I.P. 4 intro. xxxiii; and Bulletin des Lois, Convention, an III, vendémiaire-frimaire. (September–December), 1794, vol. 2. no. 350, law of 7 vendémiaire (28 September 1794).
  • For details of the conditions of lodging see AN, F17 1383. No more than four students were to be allowed in one home, and access and exit had to be through the living quarters of the family. There was considerable concern with the moral protection of the students.
  • P.V.C.I.P. Vol. 4 , 1009 – 1010 .
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 5 650 – 650 .
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 5 6161 – 6161 .
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 3 107 – 107 .
  • 1795 . P.V.C.I.P. , 6 June : 299 – 311 . messidor an 3
  • 1795 . P.V.C.I.P. , 6 : 309 – 309 . messidor an 3 (June
  • For details of the militarisation period, see Bradley M. Scientific education versus military training: the influence of Napoleon Bonaparte on the Ecole Polytechnique Annals of science 1975 32 415 449
  • I am much indebted to M. R. Soulard for his ideas on the origins of the institution of which he is director, the Musée national des techniques at the Conservatoire national des arts et métiers He is convinced, after considerable research, that the reasons for the foundation of the Conservatoire were essentially economic, and a means of combating the monopolies of the corporations. He intends shortly to publish his findings on this subject.
  • See the anonymous Notice historique sur l'ancien prieuré de St-Martin-des-Champs et sur les collections du Musée industriel du conservatoire national des arts et métiers Paris 1905
  • See the anonymous Notice historique sur l'ancien prieuré de St-Martin-des-Champs et sur les collections du Musée industriel du conservatoire national des arts et métiers Paris 1905
  • 1794 . Moniteur , 22 October : 118 – 122 . 3 For further details, see C. Ballot, ‘Procès-verbaux du Bureau de Consultation des Arts et Métiers’, Bulletin d'histoire economique de la Révolution, (1913), 15–160; J. Fayet (footnote 73); A. Léon, La Révolution Française et l'éducation technique (Paris, 1968); and F. B. Artz (footnote 132).
  • See Musée national des techniques at the Conservatoire national des arts et métiers He is convinced, after considerable research, that the reasons for the foundation of the Conservatoire were essentially economic, and a means of combating the monopolies of the corporations. He intends shortly to publish his findings on this subject.
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 5 63 – 64 .
  • AN, F17A 1306–1307 Convention Nationale, procès-verbal, 19 vendémiaire 1794 October 10
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 5 537 – 537 .
  • P.V.C.I.P. , 6 xlii – xlii . and 828
  • See P.V.C.I.P. 5 63 64
  • See Notice historique sur l'ancien prieuré de St-Martin-des-Champs et sur les collections du Musée industriel du conservatoire national des arts et métiers Paris 1905
  • AN, F17 14317 Mémoire sur les écoles des arts et métiers 1814 June by the Duc de la Rochefoucauld, 3
  • AN, F17 1136 Notice sur les Ecoles Impériales d'Arts et Métiers n.d.

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