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Julius Thomsen and 19th-century speculations on the complexity of atoms

Helge Kragh Magnolievangen 41, 3450, Allerød, Denmark
Pages 37-60 | Received 04 Jun 1981, Published online: 23 Aug 2006

References

  • Nineteenth-century atomism has been the subject of many historical studies. See, for example, Fleck G.M. Atomism in late nineteenth-century physical chemistry J. hist. ideas 1963 24 106 114 W. V. Farrar, ‘Nineteenth-century speculations on the complexity of the chemical elements’, Brit. j. hist. sci., 2 (1965), 297–323; D. M. Knight, Atoms and elements (1967, London); and M. J. Nye, ‘The nineteenth century atomic debates and the dilemma of an ‘indifferent hypothesis’, Stud. hist. phil. sci., 7 (1976), 245–268. A valuable collection of papers can be found in Classical scientific papers. Chemistry (ed. D. M. Knight: 2 vols., first series. 1968, London, second series, 1970, London).
  • Heilbron , J.L. 1964 . A history of the problem of atomic structure from the discovery of the electron to the beginning of quantum mechanics , Berkeley : University of California . dissertation ch. I. See also his ‘Lectures on the history of atomic physics 1900–1922’, in History of 20th century physics (ed. C. Weiner: 1977, New York). 40–148 (pp. 40–45).
  • Rocke , A.J. 1978 . Atoms and equivalents: the early development of the chemical theory . Hist. stud. phys. sci. , 9 : 225 – 263 . In driving his point home, Rocke applies a very broad definition of chemical atomism which does not necessarily imply a belief in real, indivisible particles as the basic constituents of matter. According to Rocke, ‘a chemist's advocacy of any fixed system of elemental weights is necessary and sufficient cause to claim that he advocated a chemical atomic theory’ (p. 260).
  • For the early positivist critique of the atomic theory, and Brodie in particular, see The atomic debates Brook W.H. Leicester 1967
  • Venable , F.P. 1899 . The nature of valence . J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 21 : 192 – 200 . (p. 197).
  • Berthelot , M. 1885 . Les origines de l'alchimie 320 – 320 . Paris Berthelot elaborated his positivist view on science in his Science et philosophie (1886, Paris).
  • In Mendelév's The principles of chemistry , 2nd ed. London 1897 2 he repeatedly stated that ‘mechanical chemistry’ or ‘Newtonian chemistry’ was the ultimate goal of chemistry. With this Mendeléev meant the reduction of chemistry to a corpuscular mechanics, following the principles of Newton and Laplace. The methods of reaching this goal were the subject of a lecture which Mendeléev delivered before the Royal Society in 1889 (‘An attempt to apply to chemistry one of the principles of Newton's natural philosophy’, as reprinted in Principles of chemistry, vol. 2, 453–470).
  • Berthelot , M. 1879 . Essai de mécanique chimique fondée sur la thermochimie Vol. 2 , Paris
  • This aspect of 19th-century chemistry is highlighted in Knight D.M. Steps toward a dynamical chemistry Ambix 1967 14 179 197
  • Prout's article from 1815 is reproduced and commented on in Alembic Club reprints, no. 20. For the history and impact of Prout's hypothesis, see Farrar Nineteenth-century speculations on the complexity of the chemical elements Brit. j. hist. sci. 1965 2 297 323 See also W. H. Brock, ‘Studies in the history of Prout's hypothesis’, Annals of science, 25 (1969), 49–80, 127–137: and D. F. Larder. ‘Prout's hypothesis: a reconsideration’. Centaurus. 15 (1970). 44–50.
  • Dumas , A. 1859 . Mémoire sur les équivalents des corps simples . Ann. chim. phys. , 55 : 129 – 210 .
  • Commentary on the foregoing paper as reprinted in Alembic Club reprints (footnote 10), 58.
  • See, for example Lockyer J.N. The chemistry of the sun London 1887 For historical details, see W. H. Brock, ‘Lockyer and the chemists: the first dissociation hypothesis’, Ambix, 16 (1969), 81–99.
  • Crookes , W. 1886 . Reports of British Association for the Advancement of Science 558 – 576 . For historical details, see R. K. DeKosky, ‘Spectroscopy and the elements in the late nineteenth century’, Brit. j. hist. sci., 6 (1973), 400–423.
  • Lakatos , I. 1970 . “ Falsification and the methodology of scientific research programmes ” . In Criticism and the growth of knowledge Edited by: Lakatos , I. and Musgrave , A. 91 – 196 . Cambridge in (p. 140).
  • Scott , Compare J.H. 1959 . The nineteenth century atom: undivided or indivisible? . J. chem. ed. , 36 : 64 – 67 .
  • There does not exist any comprehensive account of Thomsen's life and career. Useful biographical information can be found in the following sources: Veibel S. Kemien i Danmark Copenhagen 1939–1968 3 202 210 vol. 1 vol. 3, 46–56; his ‘Hans Peter Jürgen Julius Thomsen’, in Dictionary of scientific biography (ed. C. C. Gillespie, 1970–80, New York), vol. 13, 358–359; and P.O. Pedersen, Julius Thomsen (Copenhagen, 1941). See also the memorial articles by J. N. Brønsted, Fysisk Tidsskrift, 7 (1908–1909), 132–141; O. T. Christensen, Fysisk Tidsskrift, 6 (1907), 137–143; N. Bjerrum, Ber. deut. chem. Gesellschaft, 42 (1909), 4971–4988; and E. Thorpe, J. Chem. Soc. London, 97 (1910), 161–172. A complete biography of Thomsen's scientific publications is listed in Kemien i Danmark, vol. 2, 426–444. For information about Thomsen's contributions to thermochemistry, see also V. M. Schelar, ‘Thermochemistry and the third law of thermodynamics’, Chymia, 11 (1966), 99–124.
  • Letter from Ørsted to Hansteen, Copenhagen, 13 February 1851, in Correspondence de H. C. Ørsted avec divers savants Harding M.C. Copenhagen 1920 1 249 249 Ørsted's letter was written by request of C. Hansteen, a Norwegian professor of mathematics and astronomy. Ørsted tried to persuade Hansteen not to appoint a German scientist; however, thanks to the intervention of Liebig, the German chemist A. Strecker was appointed professor in 1851.
  • Thorpe . 1910 . J. Chem. Soc. London , 97 : 161 – 161 .
  • Dahl , Compare P.F. 1963 . Ludwig A. Colding and the conservation of energy . Centaurus , 8 : 174 – 188 .
  • Ørsted , H.C. 1852 . The soul in nature 88 – 88 . London
  • Thomsen , J. 1882–86 . Thermochemische Untersuchungen Vol. 4 , 3 – 3 . Leipzig vol. 1 An abridged and revised version of this work appeared in 1905 as Systematisk gennemførte termokemiske Undersøgelsers numeriske og teoretiske Resultater (1905. Copenhagen). In 1906 it was translated to German, and in 1908 it appeared in English as Thermochemistry. translated by K. A. Burke.
  • Thomsen , J. 1884 . Om Molekyler og Atomer 26 – 26 . Copenhagen
  • Thomsen , J. 1865 . Om de saakaldte Grundstoffers Natur . Tidsskr. Fys. Kemi , 4 : 65 – 115 .
  • Thomsen , J. 1865 . Om de saakaldte Grundstoffers Natur . Tidsskr. Fys. Kemi , 4 : 97 – 97 .
  • See, for example, Rudorf G. Das periodische System. Seine Geschichte und Bedeutung für die chemische Systematik Hamburg and Berlin 1904 and J. W. van Spronsen, The periodic system of chemical elements. A history of the first hundred years (1969, Amsterdam).
  • Hinrichs , G. 1866 . On the spectra and composition of the elements . Am. j. sci. arts , 42 : 350 – 368 . For Hinrichs, see J. W. van Spronsen, ‘Gustavus Detlef Hinrichs discovered, one century ago, the periodic system of chemical elements’, Janus, 56 (1969), 47–62; and C. A. Zapffe, ‘Gustavus Hinrichs, precursor of Mendeléev, Isis, 60 (1969), 461–476.
  • Thomsen . 1865 . Om de saakaldte Grundstoffers Natur . Tidsskr. Fys. Kemi , 4 : 98 – 98 .
  • Brock , Compare . 1969 . Lockyer and the chemists: the first dissociation hypothesis . Ambix , 16 : 81 – 99 . esp. 94–96.
  • Meyer , V. and Langer , C. 1885 . Pyrometrische Untersuchungen Braunschweig
  • Meyer , V. 1895 . Probleme der Atomistik . Verh. Gesellschaft deutscher Naturforscher und Ärzte , 67 : 95 – 110 . (p. 110). Meyer further made the same suggestion as had Thomsen in 1865; namely, that ‘the second and third member of a triad result from its first member through the addition of one or two quantities of weight of an unknown primary matter (p. 98).
  • Thomsen . 1884 . Om Molekyler og Atomer 10 – 10 . Copenhagen
  • Thomsen , J. 1887 . Om Materiens Enhed Copenhagen
  • The hypothesis of the chemical elements not being truly elementary, but mixtures of other elements, should not be confused with the hypothesis of the atoms of an element having different weights. The later hypothesis—an anticipation of isotopes, perhaps—was entertained by some 19th-century chemists, such as Kekulé, Butlerov and Crookes, See Farrar Nineteenth-century speculations on the complexity of the chemical elements Brit. j. hist. sci. 1965 2 317 317
  • Thomsen . 1887 . Om Materiens Enhed 19 – 19 . Copenhagen
  • Thomsen . 1887 . Om Materiens Enhed 32 – 32 . Copenhagen
  • Crookes . 1886 . Reports of British Association for the Advancement of Science 558 – 576 .
  • Thomsen . 1887 . Om Materiens Enhed 37 – 37 . Copenhagen
  • Crookes , W. 1888 . Die Genesis der Elemente 35 – 35 . Braunschweig Translation of a lecture held before the Royal Institution in 1887.
  • Thomsen . 1887 . Om Materiens Enhed 29 – 29 . Copenhagen
  • Thomsen , J. 1894 . Undersøgelser over, hvorvidt Hypothesen om Materiens Enhed kan bringes i Samklang med Theorien om Atomernes relative Vaegt . Kgl. Da. Vid. Selsk. Forhandl. Oversigt , : 306 – 324 . ‘Relations remarquables entre les poids atomique des éléments chimiques’, Kgl. Da. Vid. Selsk. Forhandl. Oversigt. (1894), 325–343.
  • Thomsen , J. 1894 . Undersøgelser over, hvorvidt Hypothesen om Materiens Enhed kan bringes i Samklang med Theorien om Atomernes relative Vaegt . Kgl. Da. Vid. Selsk. Forhandl. Oversigt , : 321 – 321 .
  • Meyer , L. 1864 . Die modernen Theorie der Chemie und ihre Bedeutung für die chemische Statik , 2nd ed. 293 – 293 . Breslau (1872) 5th ed. (1884), 135.
  • v. Nägeli , C. 1884 . Mechanisch-physiologische Theorie der Abstammungslehre Munich
  • Carnelley , T. 1886 . Suggestions as to the cause of the periodic law and the nature of the chemical elements . Chem. news , 53 : 157 – 159 . 169–172, 183–186, 197–200.
  • It is remarkable and characteristic of the imaginative spirit of Victorian science that Carnelley assigned a negative weight to the ether. A similar suggestion was ventured by Crookes in his Royal Institution lecture of 1887 Crookes W. Die Genesis der Elemente Braunschweig 1888 35 35 The idea of negative mass was in the 1890s also advanced in some physicists' attempt to generalize Newtonian gravitation. Karl Pearson introduced the notion of negative gravitational mass in 1891, and it was also discussed by August Föppl and Arthur Schuster, among others. See M. Jammer, Concepts of mass (1961, Cambridge, Mass.), 127–131.
  • Hunt , T.S. 1882 . On the chemistry of the primeval earth . Chem. news , 45 : 74 – 76 . 82–83; M. Zaengerle, Über die Natur der Elemente (1882, Munich); W. R. Livermore, ‘The perissad law’, Am. j. chem., 12 (1890), 426–442.
  • Kreichgauer , D. 1891 . Einige Versuche über die Schwere . Verh. phys. Gesellschaft zu Berlin , 10 : 13 – 16 .
  • Landolt , H. 1893 . Untersuchungen über etwaige Aenderungen des Gesammtgewichtes chemisch sich umsetzender Körper . Ztsch. physikal. Chemie , 12 : 1 – 34 .
  • Landolt , H. 1893 . Untersuchungen über etwaige Aenderungen des Gesammtgewichtes chemisch sich umsetzender Körper . Ztsch. physikal. Chemie , 12 : 34 – 34 .
  • Heydweiller , A. 1901 . Über Gewichtänderungen bei chemischer und physikalischer Umsetzung . Ann. d. Phys. , 5 : 394 – 420 . J. Joly, ‘On the conservation of mass’, D. Trans. Roy. Insh. Acad., 8 (1903), 23–52.
  • Mendeléev , D.I. 1904 . An attempt towards a chemical conception of ether London In this work Mendeléev engaged uncritically in the sort of atomic speculations of which he had always been a fervent critic. Not only did he invent a number of highly hypothetical elements but he also conjectured the existence of elements with atomic weights less than that of hydrogen. One of these elements which Mendeléev named ‘newtonium’, he identified with the world ether which he considered to be a structural component of all elements. See also R. Kargon, ‘Mendeleev's chemical ether, electrons, and the atomic theory’, J. chem. ed., 42 (1965), 388–389.
  • Thomsen never published these results but he mentioned the experiments in his ‘Undersogelser …’ Thomsen J. Undersøgelser over, hvorvidt Hypothesen om Materiens Enhed kan bringes i Samklang med Theorien om Atomernes relative Vaegt Kgl. Da. Vid. Selsk. Forhandl. Oversigt 1894 311 312
  • Thomsen , J. 1894 . Experimentelle Untersuchung zur Feststellung des Verhältnisses zwischen den Atomgewichten des Sauerstoffes und Wasserstoffes . Ztsch. physikal. Chem. , 13 : 398 – 406 .
  • Thomsen , J. 1895 . Experimentelle Untersuchung über das Atomverhältnis zwischen Sauerstoff und Wasserstoff . Ztsch. anorgan. Chem. , 11 : 14 – 30 .
  • Strutt , R.J. 1888 . On the relative densities of hydrogen and oxygen . Proc. Roy. Soc. London , 43 : 356 – 363 . see also Rayleigh's report of the same title in Nature, 46 (1892), 101–104, where he wrote: ‘At the time when these researches were commenced, the latest work bearing upon the subject dated from 1845, and the number then accepted was 15·96. There was, however, nothing to show that the true value really deviated from the 16:1 of Prout's law, and the main object of my work was to ascertain whether or not such deviation existed’ (101).
  • See Weeks M.E. The discovery of the elements , 7th ed. Easton, Pa. 1968 752 752
  • Thomsen , J. 1894 . Undersøgelser over, hvorvidt Hypothesen om Materiens Enhed kan bringes i Samklang med Theorien om Atomernes relative Vaegt . Kgl. Da. Vid. Selsk. Forhandl. Oversigt , : 317 – 317 .
  • Thomsen , J. 1894 . Undersøgelser over, hvorvidt Hypothesen om Materiens Enhed kan bringes i Samklang med Theorien om Atomernes relative Vaegt . Kgl. Da. Vid. Selsk. Forhandl. Oversigt , : 324 – 324 .
  • Farrar . 1965 . Nineteenth-century speculations on the complexity of the chemical elements . Brit. j. hist. sci. , 2 : 308 – 309 .
  • Compare Siegel D. Classical electromagnetic and relativistic approaches to the problem of nonintegral atomic masses Hist. stud. phys. sci. 1978 9 323 360
  • Thomsen , J. 1894 . Undersøgelser over, hvorvidt Hypothesen om Materiens Enhed kan bringes i Samklang med Theorien om Atomernes relative Vaegt . Kgl. Da. Vid. Selsk. Forhandl. Oversigt , : 322 – 323 .
  • Larmor , J. 1893 . A dynamical theory of the electric and luminiferous medium . Proc. Roy. Soc. London , 54 : 438 – 461 . See also Siegel (footnote 61).
  • Meyer . 1864 . Die modernen Theorie der Chemie und ihre Bedeutung für die chemische Statik , 1st ed. 135 – 135 . Breslau
  • Meyer , L. 1870 . Die Natur der chemischen Elemente als Funktion ihrer Atomgewichte . Liebig's Ann. Suppl. , 7 : 354 – 364 .
  • Meyer . 1895 . Probleme der Atomistik . Verh. Gesellschaft deutscher Naturforscher und Ärzte , 67 : 96 – 96 .
  • Berthelot, in his Les origines de l'alchimie, explicitly drew this analogy Les origines de l'alchimie Paris 1885 302 302 and 312). See also O. T. Benfrey, ‘“The great chain of being” and the periodic table of the elements’, J. chem. ed., 42 (1965), 39–41.
  • Mendeléev , D.I. 1889 . The periodic law of the chemical elements . J. Chem. Soc. , 55 : 634 – 656 . reprinted in Principles of chemistry (footnote 7), vol. 2, 471–490 (p. 480).
  • Principles of chemistry , 2nd ed. Vol. 1 , 22 – 22 .
  • Compare Kaufmann G.B. Sophus Mads Jørgensen and the Werner-Jørgensen controversy Chymia 1960 6 180 204
  • Jørgensen , S.M. 1896 . Mindre Laerebog i uorganisk Chemi , 2nd ed. Copenhagen
  • Thomsen . 1887 . Om Materiens Enhed Copenhagen
  • Thomsen , J. 1895 . Classifications des corps simples . Kgl. Da. Vid. Selsk. Oversigt , : 132 – 136 . A German version appeared as ‘Systematische Gruppierung der chemischen Elemente’, Ztsch. anorg. Chem., 9 (1895), 190–193. This version was translated into English as ‘Systematic arrangement of the chemical elements’, in Chem. news, 71 (1895), 89–91.
  • Bayley , T. 1882 . On the connexion between the atomic weight and the chemical and physical properties of elements . Phil. mag. , 13 ( 5 ) : 26 – 37 .
  • Bassett , H. 1892 . A tabular expression of the periodic relations of the elements . Chem. news , 65 : 3 – 4 . 19.
  • Carnelley . 1886 . Suggestions as to the cause of the periodic law and the nature of the chemical elements . Chem. news , 53 : 157 – 159 .
  • This version is reproduced in v. Hevesy G. Die seltenen Erden vom Standpunkte des Atombaus Berlin 1927 5 5
  • References for these works can be found in v. Hevesy G. Recherches sur les propriétés du hafnium Kgl. Da. Vid. Selsk. Medd. 1925 7 6 1 147 (pp. 131–141).
  • Mendeléev , D.I. 1869 . Über die Beziehungen der Eigenschaften zu den Atomgewichten der Elemente . Ztsch. für Chemie. , 12 : 405 – 406 .
  • According to Thorpe, ‘Mendeléev, in the course of conversation with me, more than once expressed his conviction that a diligent search among naturally occuring titaniferous compounds, or among minerals belonging to the same group of elements as titanium, would be rewarded by the discovery of such an element’ Thorpe T.E. Hafnium and titanium Nature 1923 111 252 252
  • Thomsen , J. 1895 . Classifications des corps simples . Kgl. Da. Vid. Selsk. Oversigt , : 135 – 135 . In the German version of his paper, Thomsen stated the atomic weight to be 181; the true value is 178·5.
  • Hevesy . 1925 . Recherches sur les propriétés du hafnium . Kgl. Da. Vid. Selsk. Medd. , 7 ( 6 ) : 117 – 118 .
  • Van Spronsen . 1969 . The periodic system of chemical elements. A history of the first hundred years 272 – 272 . Amsterdam
  • 1895 . Systematische Gruppierung der chemischen Elemente . Ztsch. anorg. Chem. , 9 : 193 – 193 .
  • Compare Kragh H. Niels Bohr's second atomic theory Hist. stud. phys. sci. 1979 10 123 186
  • Thomsen , J. 1895 . Classifications des corps simples . Kgl. Da. Vid. Selsk. Oversigt , : 136 – 136 .
  • Compare W. Pauli Rydberg and the periodie system of the elements Rydberg centennial conference Lund 1954 22 26
  • Rydberg , J. 1906 . Elektron. der erste Grundstoff Lund
  • Rydberg , J. 1913 . Untersuchungen über das System der Grundstoffe . Acta univer sitatis lundensis , avd. 2. serie 9
  • Sommerfeld referred to Rydberg's formula as ‘the somewhat cabalistic form’ Sommerfeld A Atombau und Spektrallinien , 4th ed. Braunschweig 1924 153 153
  • Pauli , W. 1964 . “ Exclusion principle and quantum mechanics ” . In Nobel lectures—physics (1942–1962) 27 – 43 . Amsterdam Nobel Lecture, 13 December 1946. in (p. 27).
  • Gladstone , J.H. 1895 . Argon . Nature , 151 : 389 – 390 . J. E. Reynolds, ‘Argon and the periodie system’, Nature, 151 (1895), 486–487; R. Nasini, ‘On argon’, Chem news, 71 (1895), 247. See also Stoney (footnote 142); and R. M. Deeley, ‘Helium and argon: their places among the elements’, Chem. news, 71 (1895), 297–298.
  • 1895 . Professor Mendeléef on argon . Nature , 151 : 543 – 543 . See also Mendeléev's ‘Argon, a new constitutent of the atmosphere’, published as an appendix in his Principles of chemistry, (footnote 7) 491–499. Mendeléev saw his suggestion of argon being N3 supported by recent experiments of Berthelot, who reported upon a chemical reaction between argon and vapours of benzene. See M. Berthelot, ‘The fluorescence of argon, and its combination with the elements of benzene’, Nature, 52 (1895), 255–256.
  • Brauner , B. 1895 . Some remarks on “argon” . Chem. news , 70 : 79 – 79 . see also his, ‘Ueber die Gase des argon-helium Typus und das periodische System’, Ber. Deut. Chem. Gesellschaft, 32 (1899), 708–712.
  • Thomsen , J. 1895 . Om den sandsynlige Forekomst aften Gruppe uvirksomme Grundstoffer . Kgl. Da. Vid. Selsk. Forhandl. Orersigt , : 137 – 143 . (p. 137); published in German as ‘Über die mutmasslische Gruppe inaktiver Elemente’. Ztsch. anorg. Chem., 8 (1895). 283–288.
  • Thomsen , J. 1895 . Om den sandsynlige Forekomst aften Gruppe uvirksomme Grundstoffer . Kgt. Da. Vid. Selsk. Forhandl. Orersigt , : 143 – 143 .
  • It is interesting that Bohr predicted in 1922 that the hypothetical element with atomic number 118 would be a noble gas (see Kragh Niels Bohr's second atomic theory Hist. stud. phys. sci. 1979 10 165 165
  • Thomsen , J. 1895 . Om den sandsynlige Forekomst af en Gruppe uvirksomme Grundstoffer . Kgl. Da. Vid. Selsk. Forhandl. Oversigt , : 139 – 139 .
  • Sedgwick , W. 1890 . Force as an entity, with stream, pool and wave forms 60 – 69 . London his, ‘The existence of an element without valency of the atomic weight of “argon” anticipated before the discovery of “argon” by lord Rayleigh and prof. Ramsay’, Chem. news, 70 (1895), 139–140
  • Stoney , G.J. 1895 . Argon—a suggestion . Chem. news , 70 : 67 – 68 .
  • Andrews , W.W. 1895 . The position of argon in the periodic system . Chem. news , 70 : 235 – 235 .
  • Armstrong , H.E. 1902 . Classification of the elements . Proc. Roy. Soc. London , 70 : 86 – 94 .
  • Reed , C.J. 1895 . A prediction of the discovery of argon . Chem. news , 71 : 213 – 215 .
  • Lecoq de Boisbaudran , P.E. 1895 . Remarques sur les poids atomique . C. r. Acad. Sci. , 120 : 361 – 362 .
  • Lecoq de Boisbaudran , P.E. 1895 . Classification des éléments chimiques . C. r. Acad. Sci. , 120 : 1097 – 1103 . and 124 (1897), 127–130.
  • Thomsen , J. 1898 . Ueber Abtrennung von Helium aus einer natürlichen Verbindung unter starker Licht- und Wärmeentwicklung . Ztsch. physikal. Chem. , 25 : 112 – 114 . See also J. Thomsen, ‘Om dei nogle grønlandske mineralier indeholdte Luftarter’, Kgl. Da. Vid. Selsk. Forhandl. Oversigt, (1904), 53–57.
  • As recorded by Bjerrum Ber. deut. chem. Gesellschaft 1909 42 4986 4986 Thomsen published nothing on these experiments.
  • Cf. Weeks The discovery of the elements , 7th ed. Easton, Pa. 1968 760 760

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