James geikie, james croll, and the eventful ice age

References

• Geikie , James . 1871 . On the Changes of Climate during the Glacial Epoch . Geological Magazine , 8 : 531 – 541 . 9 (1872), 23–31, 61–69, 105–11, 164–70, 215–22, 254–65. James Geikie (1839–1914) was the younger brother of Sir Archibald Geikie. He joined the Scottish Survey in 1861, and in 1882 succeeded his brother as professor of geology at Edinburgh. On Geikie, see Marion Newbigin and John Flett, James Geikie—the Man and the Geologist (Edinburgh, 1917); John Horne, ‘The Influence of James Geikie's Researches on the Development of Glacial Geology’, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 36 (1917), 1–25; and John Challinor, ‘Geikie, James’, in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, v (New York, 1972), 338–9.
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• Croll James On the Physical Cause of the Change of Climate During Glacial Periods Philosophical Magazine 1864 28 121 137 4th series Croll (1821–1890), a self-educated mathematician, physicist, and metaphysicist, investigated many of the critical problems of theoretical geology during the final twenty-five years of his life. I call Croll a physicist for lack of a better term. His work, though quantitative and based on thermodynamics and Newtonian physics, bore little resemblance to most mid-nineteenth-century mathematical physics. On Croll, see James Campbell-Irons, Autobiographical Sketch of James Croll with a Memoir of his Life and Work (London, 1896); Joe Burchfield, Lord Kelvin and the Age of the Earth (New York, 1975), 62–9; Joe Burchfield, ‘Darwin and the dilemma of Geological Time’, Isis, 65 (1974), 300–21, especially pp. 310–13, 316–18; G. L. Davies, The Earth in Decay: a History of British Geomorphology 1578–1878 (London, 1969), 290–1, 350–1; R. J. Chorley, A.J. Dunne, and R. P. Beckinsale. The History of the Study of Landforms, 2 vols. (London, 1964), I, 418–25; John Imbrie and Katherine Palmer Imbrie, Ice Ages, Solving the Mystery (Short Hills, N.J., 1979), 77–96; and Harold L. Burstyn, ‘Croll, James’, Dictionary of Scientific Biography, III (New York, 1971), 470–1.
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• Geikie , James . 1879 . The Great Ice Age and its Relation to the Antiquity of Man 111 – 111 . New York and James Geikie (footnote 1), 264–5. The 1879 New York edition is apparently a reprint of the 1874 first American edition.
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• Page , David . 1856 . Advanced Text-book of Geology 230 – 230 . Edinburgh See similar statements by Searles V. Wood Jr, ‘The Glacial Epoch’, The Reader, 6 (1865), 297; Robert Chambers, ‘On the Glacial Phenomena of Scotland and Part of England’, Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, 54 (1852), 229–81, especially p. 275; and Archibald Geikie, ‘On the Ancient Glaciers and Icebergs of Scotland’, North British Review (November 1863), 286–321, especially p. 297.
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• Geikie , Archibald . 1856 . Advanced Text-book of Geology 297 – 297 . Edinburgh I have adopted the following nineteenth-century usages. ‘Drift’ is a collective term referring to Ice Age deposits in general. ‘Boulder clay’ usually means ‘till’, though it may mean ‘drift’. The adjective ‘galcial’ refers to Ice Age deposits generally, not only to those actually formed by glaciers.
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• Page Advanced Text-book of Geology Edinburgh 1856 230 230
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• Trimmer , Joshua . 1841 . Practical Geology and Mineralogy with Instructions for the Qualitative Analysis of Minerals 393 – 393 . London See also Page (footnote 4), 230. Drift study was further complicated by the fact that most of the fossils contained in the drift were of extant species and there was therefore little basis on which to compare faunas of different beds to determine which was the elder due to its greater proportion of extinct species. For comments on this technique, see M.J.S. Rudwick, The Meaning of Fossils—Episodes in the History of Paleontology (New York, 1972), pp. 183–5. For a discussion of the necessity of assuming the existence of equivalent deposits in different regions (an assumption many mid-nineteenth-century glacial geologists were unwilling to make), see William Whewell, The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, 2nd edn, 2 vols (London, 1847), I, 646.
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• Trimmer . 1841 . Practical Geology and Mineralogy with Instructions for the Qualitative Analysis of Minerals 397 – 397 . London and Trimmer, ‘On the Diluvial Deposits of Caernarvonshire’, Proceedings of the Geological Society of London, 1 (1834), 331–2. Croll later showed that glaciers had pushed these deposits to high altitudes: James Croll, Climate and Time in their Geological Relations (New York, 1875), pp. 435–55. Also see the comments of J.K. Charlesworth: The Quarternary Era with Special Reference to its Glaciation, 2 vols (London, 1957), II, 628.
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• Hopkins , William . 1852 . Anniversary address to the Geological Society of London, 1852 . Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London , 8 : xxi – lxxx . especially p. xlix.
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• Good accounts of the glacial theory at this time are: North F.J. Centenary of the glacial theory Proceedings Geologists' Association 1943 54 1 24 especially pp. 1–10; M.J.S. Rudwick, ‘The glacial theory’, History of Science, 8 (1969), 136–57; Bert Hansen, ‘Early history of the glacial theory’, Journal of Glaciology, 9 (1970), 135–41; Charlesworth (footnote 8), II, 615–30; and Davies (footnote 2), 263–313.
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• On diluvialism, see Page LeRoy Diluvialism and its Critics Towards a History of Geology Schneer C.J. Cambridge , Mass. 1969 257 271 Rudwick (footnote 10), passim; and Davies (footnote 2), 249–54.
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• Charlesworth . 1841 . Practical Geology and Mineralogy with Instructions for the Qualitative Analysis of Minerals Vol. II , 619 – 619 . London Davies (footnote 2), 254–57, 294–301; Chorley et al. (footnote 2), I, 200–4; Susan Schultz, ‘Thomas C. Chamberlin—an Intellectual Biography of a Geologist and Educator’, Dissertation University of Wisconsin (Madison, 1976), 157–59; and Charles Lyell, ‘Anniversary Address to the Geological Society of London, 1836’, Proceedings of the Geological Society of London, 2 (1838), 357–90, especially p. 384.
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• See Balmer Heinz Ignaz Venetz Gesnerus 1970 27 138 168 Heinz Balmer, ‘Jean de Charpentier’, Gesnerus, 26 (1969), 213–22; Davies (footnote 2), 269–86; G.L. Davies, ‘The Tour of the British Isles made by Louis Agassiz in 1840’, Annals of Science, 24 (1968), 131–46; A. V. Carozzi, ‘Agassiz's Amazing Geological Speculation: the Ice Age’, Studies on Romanticism, 5 (1966), 57–83.
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• Rudwick . 1943 . Centenary of the glacial theory . Proceedings Geologists' Association , 54 : 1 – 24 . passim. It was, as ARchibald Geikie reflected, ‘a supposition too violent for ready belief (Geikie (foontnote 4), 292). Similar sentiments were expressed by R. I. Murchison (‘Anniversary address to the Geological Society of London, 1842’, Proceedings of the Geological Society of London, 4 (1845), 65–161, especially p. 93), and William Whewell, (History of the Inductive Sciences from the Earliest to the Present Time, 3rd edn, 2 vols (New York, 1858), II, 547). But see Lord George Campbell, Duke of Argyll, ‘Anniversary Address to the Geological Society of London, 1874’, Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London, 30 (1874), xxiv–lxix, especially p. lv.
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• Lyell , Charles . 1855 . Manual of Elementary Geology , 5th edn 139 – 139 . London Archibald Geikie, ‘On the phenomena of the glacial drift of Scotland’, Transactions of the Geological Society of Glasgow, 1, part 2 (1863), i–viii, 1–174, especially p. iii.
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• Lyell . 1855 . Manual of Elementary Geology , 5th edn 127 – 143 . London H. T. De la Beche, The Geological Observer, 2nd edn (London, 1853), pp. 258–60; Murchison (footnote 14), 92; and Charles Darwin, Journal of Researches into the Natural History and Geology of Countries Visited During the Voyage of the H.M.S. Beagle Round the World (London, 1845), pp. 234–4.
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• Lyell boasted to a New York lecture audience: ‘They [icebergs] grate along the bottom of the ocean, ploughing up mud and sand with a force sufficient easily to move a building like this [the Broadway Tabernacle], or even the whole city of New-York before them!’ Lyell Charles Boulders and icebergs Eight Lectures on Geology Delivered at the Broadway Tabernacle in the City of New York, Reported for the New York Tribune New York 1842 55 55 See also C. Lyell, ‘On the Boulder Formation, or Drift and Associated Freshwater Deposits Composing the Mud-cliffs of Eastern Norfolk’, London, Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical Magazine, 3rd series, 16 (1840), 345–80, especially pp. 379–80; and Lyell (footnote 15), 128.
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• Lyell . 1855 . Manual of Elementary Geology , 5th edn 129 – 129 . London
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• T.L. Hayes of Boston polled a group of Massachusetts sea captains regarding the range of Arctic icebergs. See Hayes Probable Influence of Icebergs Upon the Drift Boston Journal of Natural History 1844 4 426 452 especially p. 427; and Captain Vetch, ‘Icebergs and Changes of Geological Opinions’, Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, 31 (1841), 56–60.
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• Lyell . 1842 . “ Boulders and icebergs ” . In Eight Lectures on Geology Delivered at the Broadway Tabernacle in the City of New York, Reported for the New York Tribune 376 – 376 . New York and Page (footnote 4), 234.
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• The Arctic shells found in the drift might result from a sight cooling due to the changing configuration of the sinking or rising land (Lyell's explanation) or from changes in the oceanic circulation, and changes in the course of the GulfStream in particular. See Hopkins William On the Causes which May have Produced Changes in the Earth's Superficial Temperature Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London 1852 8 56 92
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• Beche , De la . 1855 . Manual of Elementary Geology , 5th edn 259 – 260 . London
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• This was the self-assigned task of Wood Searles V. Jr For a discussion of the difficulties he encountered see his ‘Observations on the sequence of glacial beds’ Geological Magazine 1830–84 1870 7 17 22 61–8, passim.
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• Mackintosh , Daniel . 1872 . The Age of Floating Ice in North Wales . Geological Magazine , 9 : 15 – 23 . and Daniel Mackintosh, The Scenery of England and Wales—its Character and Origin (London, 1869), 70–77.
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• Horne . 1871 . On the Changes of Climate during the Glacial Epoch . Geological Magazine , 8 : 3 – 3 . Horne noted that the iceberg theory ‘deterred many stratigraphical geologists from spending time on what seemed to be an unprofitable task’.
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• Lyell . 1842 . “ Boulders and icebergs ” . In Eight Lectures on Geology Delivered at the Broadway Tabernacle in the City of New York, Reported for the New York Tribune 348 – 348 . New York
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• Some recognized that these estimations of icebergs' capabilities were based not on the observation of ‘existing causes’, but only on the unproven consequences of unobserved events. Both Captain Vetch ((footnote 19), 57), and Hayes ((footnote 19), 448), felt that detritus-laden icebergs were not as common as would be expected in light of the amount of work they had presumably done. For stronger statements see Chambers Advanced Text-book of Geology Edinburgh 1856 229 229 262; and James Croll, ‘On Geological Time and the Probable Date of the Glacial and Upper Miocene Period’, London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine, 4th series, 35 (1868), 363–84; 36 (1868), 141–54, 362–86, especially 3rd paper, pp. 373–74. See also Lewis Westgate, ‘Errors in the Scientific Method—Glacial Geology’, Scientific Monthly, 51 (1940), 299–309, especially pp. 301–2.
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• This was a controversial issue. Page David Advanced Text-book of Geology Edinburgh 1856 291 291 Contrast: Geikie with Lyell (footnote 12), 380–88; Lyell (footnote 15), 128; and Charles Darwin, ‘On the Power of Icebergs to make Rectilinear Uniformly Directed Grooves Across a Submarine Undulatory Surface’, London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine, 4th series, 10 (1855), 96–8, especially p. 96. See also Captain Bayfield, ‘A Notice on the Transportation of Rocks by Ice’, Proceedings of the Geological Society of London, 2 (1838), 223.
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• Geikie . 1856 . Advanced Text-book of Geology 292 – 292 . Edinburgh 298, and Geikie (footnote 15), 77–83.
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• Among the subscribers to this explanation were: Ramsay A.C. On the Superficial Accumulations and Surface-Markings of North Wales Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London 1852 8 371 376 T. F. Jamieson (‘On the history of the last geological changes in Scotland’, Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London, 21 (1865), 161–203, especially pp. 194–5); Robert Chambers ((footnote 4), 279–80); Daniel Mackintosh ((footnote 24), ‘Scenery of England and Wales’), 289–91); A. Geikie (footnote 4), 299); and S. V. Wood Jr (footnote 23), passim). Jamieson, A. Giekie, and Chambers emphasized the continental glaciers while Ramsay (at least in 1852; he later changed his mind), Wood, and Mackintosh emphasized the floating ice.
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• Chambers . 1856 . Advanced Text-book of Geology 279 – 279 . Edinburgh
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• Archibald , Geikie . 1865 . The Scenery of Scotland Viewed in Connexion with its Physical Geology London passim
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• Geikie , A. 1855 . Manual of Elementary Geology , 5th edn 11 – 12 . London
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• Geikie , A. 1855 . Manual of Elementary Geology , 5th edn 11 – 11 . London 109. The stratified actually contained a broad variety of both stratified and unstratified clastic sedimentary deposits, some even resembling the till, in no consistent sequence whatever. It had been precisely this lack of consistent organization that had led Lyell to the conclusion that the drift's chaotic appearance was both its key characteristic and the proof that it could only be the product of an agency (icebergs) that could produce at once so mixed an assortment of deposits.
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• A few other geologists had recognized a distrinction between the till and the stratified drift, but had not gone on to suggest why this was so. See Page Advanced Text-book of Geology Edinburgh 1856 235 235
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• Geikie , A. 1855 . Manual of Elementary Geology , 5th edn 54 – 54 . London
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• Geikie , A. 1855 . Manual of Elementary Geology , 5th edn 55 – 55 . London
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• Geikie , A. 1855 . Manual of Elementary Geology , 5th edn 65 – 65 . London
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• Geikie , A. 1855 . Manual of Elementary Geology , 5th edn 92 – 92 . London
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• Geikie , A. 1855 . Manual of Elementary Geology , 5th edn 94 – 94 . London
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• Geikie , G. 1855 . Manual of Elementary Geology , 5th edn 41 – 41 . London
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• Robert Chambers wrote: ‘The superficial formations of England have been described by various local observers, but with such a want of concert and relation, that it is extremely difficult to reduce them to conformity even amongst themselves, much more to bring them into harmony with those in Scotland. Chambers Advanced Text-book of Geology Edinburgh 1856 275 275 According to S. V. Wood Jr: ‘Those of the English geologists who are best acquainted with the drift beds have hitherto entertained the opinion that our knowledge of these beds is extremely imperfect, and that an immense amount of work would have to be done before we could arrive at any accurate ideas on the subject in general’. (Wood, ‘The Glacial Submergence’, The Reader, 6 (1865), 465.)
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• Geikie , A. 1856 . Advanced Text-book of Geology 299 – 299 . Edinburgh This popular explanation had been quantified by David Milne-Home (‘Notes on ancient glaciers made during a brief visit to Chamouni and neighbourhood’, Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, new series 14 (1861), 46–62, especially p. 61), and J. D. Forbes (‘On the diminution of temperature with height’, Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, 29 (1840), 205–14).
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• Rudwick points out: ‘Geologists have recognized that … it is completely proper to concentrate on elucidating the character of past events, even when when the cause of these events remains perfectly obscure’. Rudwick Centenary of the glacial theory Proceedings Geologists' Association 1943 54 140 140 See also: Jean de Charpentier, ‘Essay on the Glaciers and the Erratic Formation of the Basin of the Rhone’, Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, 33 (1842), 104–24, especially p. 118; John Phillips, ‘Anniversary Address to the Geological Society of London, 1859’, Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London, 15 (1859), xxi–lxi, especially p. xliv; and Andrew Taylor, ‘On the Probability of our Successfully Calculating the Age of the Earth’, Transactions of the Geological Society of Edinburgh, 2 (1874), 402–11, especially p. 411.
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• Croll On the Physical Cause of the Change of Climate During Glacial Periods Philosophical Magazine 1864 28 121 137 4th series and Campbell-Irons (footnote 2), 91–5. On Croll at the Andersonian see James Muir, John Anderson, Pioneer in Technical Education and the College He Founded (Glasgow, 1950), 120.
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• For the history of this issue see Zeuner Frederick The Pleistocene Period, its Climate, Chronology and Faunal Successions London 1959 178 183 and Imbrie (footnote 2), passim.
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• Herschel J.F.W. On the Astronomical Causes which may Influence Geological Phenomena Transactions of the Geological Society of London 1835 3 293 299 2nd series especially p. 296. (N.B. The paper was read in 1830.)
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• Croll . 1864 . On the Physical Cause of the Change of Climate During Glacial Periods . Philosophical Magazine , 28 : 142 – 142 . 4th series
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• The importance of the Gulf Stream in maintaining a temperate climate in Europe was well recognized. See Hopkins On the Causes which May have Produced Changes in the Earth's Superficial Temperature Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London 1852 8 63 65
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• The idea of a feedback mechanism presented conceptual problems to some of Croll's critics. See: Wood S.V. The Climate Controversy Geological Magazine 1876 13 385 398 442–51, especially p. 390; and E. Hill, ‘Excentricity and glacial epochs’, Geological Magazine, new series, decade II, 7 (1880), 190–1.
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• Croll , J. 1865 . On the Physical Cause of the Submergence of Land during the Glacial Epoch . The Reader , 6 : 271 – 271 . Also see J. Croll, On the Eccentricity of the Earth's Orbit, and its Physical Relations to the Glacial Epoch, Philosophical Magazine, 4th series, 33 (1867), 119–31.
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• With some justification. We can find all the major components of Croll's theory in Somerville's Mary Physical Geography , 3rd edn Philadelphia 1857 206 206 (currents), 267–8 (earth's heat budget), 270 (reflection), 271 (heat storage), 277 (latent heat), and 280 (trade winds).
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• Croll , J. 1841 . Practical Geology and Mineralogy with Instructions for the Qualitative Analysis of Minerals 22 – 22 . London
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• Wood . 1856 . Advanced Text-book of Geology 466 – 466 . Edinburgh See also Phillips (footnote 14), 180.
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• Croll . 1856 . Advanced Text-book of Geology 362 – 362 . Edinburgh The past three million years were strategically defined by Croll as including the bulk of the Tertiary, thereby leaving him with more stratigraphic ‘room’ in which to find evidence of glacial and interglacial periods.
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• Lyell Charles The Principles of Geology , 10th edn London 1867 I 205 211 2 vols 216–18, 222–4, 230–1. Compare with the 9th edn (London, 1853), pp. 113–27, especially p. 125–6. See also Ramsay to Croll, 19 August 1864 in Campbell-Irons (footnote 2), 113–4. A case might be made for Ramsay and Croll enlightening Lyell on this issue.
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• Croll . 1856 . Advanced Text-book of Geology 363 – 363 . Edinburgh 3rd paper)
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• Croll . 1856 . Advanced Text-book of Geology 363 – 366 . Edinburgh 3rd paper)
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• Croll Advanced Text-book of Geology Edinburgh 1856 368 374 3rd paper) Croll used his physics to show that icebergs were incapable of having formed the drift.
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• Croll . 1856 . Advanced Text-book of Geology 380 – 380 . Edinburgh 3rd paper)
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• Bennie , James . 1871 . Surface Geology of the District Around Glasgow . Transactions of the Geological Society of Glasgow , 3 : 133 – 148 . especially p. 136; and James Croll, ‘On Two River Channels Buried under Drift’, Transactions of the Geological Society of Edinburgh, 1 (1870), 330–45, especially pp. 344–5. Both papers were the result of their joint work.
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• Bennie . 1871 . Surface Geology of the District Around Glasgow . Transactions of the Geological Society of Glasgow , 3 : 136 – 136 .
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• Bennie On the Physical Cause of the Change of Climate During Glacial Periods Philosophical Magazine 1864 28 166 172 4th series and Archibald Geikie, A Long Life's Work: an Autobiography (London, 1924), p. 115. Croll failed the required civil service examination. That A. Geikie, Murchison, and Lord Kelvin quickly interceded in the matter, successfully bringing to bear their influence so that Croll might be allowed to waive the requirement, suggests their recognition of Croll's unusual genius and judgment that his work was worthy of government sponsorship.
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• Rudler , F.W. 1875 . Review of Croll's Climate and Time . The Academy , November : 482 – 482 . 6
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• 1913 . Eminent living Geologists. James Geikie . Geological Magazine , : 50 – 50 . 241–8, especially pp. 241–2; James Geikie, quoted in John Young, Essay and addresses (Glasgow, 1904), pp. xix–xx. Also see Newbigin and Flett (footnote 1), 20–5, 152–5; and Challinor (footnote 1), 338. Geological evidence of interglacials can be found in ‘Explanation of Sheet 7. Ayrshire: South-Western District’, Memoirs of the Geological Survey, Scotland (Edinburgh, 1869), p. 14; ‘Explanation of Sheet 14. Ayrshire: Southern District’, Memoirs of the Geological Survey, Scotland (Edinburgh, 1869), p. 24; ‘Explanation of Sheet 24. Peebleshire with parts of Lanark, Edinburgh and Selkirk’, Memoirs of the Geological Survey, Scotland (Edinburgh, 1869), p. 19. The 1866 paper is James Geikie, ‘On the Buried Forests and the Peat Mosses of Scotland and the Changes of Climate which they Indicate’, Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 24 (1867), 363–84, especially pp. 383–4. This allusion to ‘cosmical’ theories indicates an acquaintance with Croll's ideas.
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• James Geikie to B. N. Peach, unspecified Saturday tentatively dated May 1871, Geological Museum, GSM 1 321, #29. These are probably the drawings on p. 12 of the 1879 American edition of Geikie James The Great Ice Age and its Relation to the Antiquity of Man New York 1879 111 111
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• James Geikie to B. N. Peach October 1871 12 Geological Museum 1 321, #31.
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• Phillips , John . 1864 . Address to the Section of Geology at the 34th Annual Meeting of the British Association at Bath, September 15, 1864 . Geological Magazine , 1 : 180 – 180 . There is, of course, the difficult question of defining ‘traditional geological endeavour’ during this period. It is apparent that by mid-century British geology had acquired a professional identity and British geologists were working with a clear recognition of the methods and boundaries of their science which made unnecessary the enthusiastic, if illusory, proclamations of empiricism that characterized the early years of the Geological Society of London. Compare Sedgwick, ‘Anniversary address to the Geological Society of London, 1831’, Proceedings of the Geological Society of London, 1 (1834), 281–316, especially p. 302; with the less aggressive empiricism of De la Beche (footnote 16, p. v); and David Page (footnote 4, p. 2). For appraisals of early- and mid-nineteenth-century geological method also see: Whewell (footnote 7), I, 652–4; J. F. W. Herschel, Preliminary discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy (London, 1830), 286; Reijer Hooykaas, Natural Law and Divine Miracle—a Historical-Critical Study of the Principle of Uniformity in Geology (Leiden, 1959), passim; Westgate (footnote 27), 299–309; Rachael Bush, ‘The Development of Geological Mapping in Britain from 1795 to 1825’, Dissertation London University (London, 1974), 16–25; and Leonard G. Wilson, ‘Geology on the Eve of Charles Lyell's First Visit to America’, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 124, no. 3 (1980), passim. Although geologists frequently appealed for the help of physics and chemistry, examples of successful interdisciplinary collaborations are rare. See: Campbell, Duke of Argyll (footnote 14), lvi–lviii; Phillips (footnote 44), xliv; Burchfield (footnote 2, Kelvin), passim; and Harold Sharlin, ‘On Being Scientific: a critique of Evolutionary Geology and Biology in the nineteenth century’, Annals of Science, 27 (1972), 271–85.
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• Wood , S.V. 1872 . Reply to Mr James Geikie's Correlation of the Scotch and English Beds . Geological Magazine , 9 : 171 – 176 . especially p. 171. See also Daniel Mackintosh, ‘Correlation of the Scotch and English Drifts’, Geological Magazine, 9 (1872), 189–90.
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