- Farley , J. and Geison , G.L. 1974 . Science, Politics and Spontaneous Generation in Nineteenth-Century France: the Pasteur-Pouchet Debate . Bulletin of the History of Medicine , 48 : 161 – 198 . A slightly abridged edition of this article was republished in Darwin to Einstein. Historical Studies on Science and Belief, edited by C. Chant and J. Fauvel (Open University, 1980), pp. 107–33. (We use the original version.) Farley made full use of the same material in Chapter 6, entitled ‘The French Coup de Grâce’, in his book The Spontaneous Generation Controversy from Descartes to Oparin (Baltimore and London, 1977), and also in his article ‘The Social, Political, and Religious Background to the Work of Louis Pasteur’, Annual Review of Microbiology, 32 (1978), 143–54. The joint article by Farley and Geison has been widely influential. For example, it is considered authoritative by Mary Hesse in the section ‘The Strong Thesis of Sociology of Science’ in her book Revolutions and Reconstructions in the Philosophy of Science (Brighton, 1980), especially pp. 34–5; also by H. M. Collins in ‘The Place of the “Core-Set” in Modern Science: Social Contingency with Methodological Property in Science’, History of Science, 19 (1981), 6–19.
- They write: ‘by focusing so much on Pasteur we hope to have communicated a fairly clear sense of the specific manner in which external factors affected the actual experimental work and theoretical positions of one whose allegiance to “the experimental method” has rarely if ever been challenged’; Farley Geison Science, Politics and Spontaneous Generation in Nineteenth-Century France: the Pasteur-Pouchet Debate Bulletin of the History of Medicine 1974 48 197 197
- In 1972, two years before the appearance of Farley and Geison's joint article, Farley had published an article on spontaneous generation in the area of intestinal worms The Spontaneous Generation Controversy (1700–1860): The Origin of Parasitic Worms Journal of the History of Biology 1972 5 95 125 In this article he not only demonstrates that oustanding research done in Europe in the 1840s and 1850s had seriously undermined Pouchet's theory of spontaneous generation in that area, but also that this French scientist had largely accepted that his theory had been weakened (pp. 124–5). But in publications that appeared from 1974, however, Farley (and Geison) in order to maintain a strong externalist thesis minimizes or omits some main conclusions of the 1972 article on intestinal worms. For example, in their joint article, Farley and Geison quote the 1972 article only to draw attention to the three first decades of the nineteenth century, when the theory of spontaneous generation had not yet been strongly undermined (p. 163). Another example is Farley's book of 1974 (footnote 1), in which he omits some relevant information from the 1972 article that contradicted his new position. The present study confirms that the theory of spontaneous generation was hardly sustainable, not only in the area of internal parasitic worms studied by Farley, but also in that of cryptogamic plants. The presentation of Pouchet is completely changed: while in the 1972 article he is depicted as someone within a backward-looking generation (p. 124) in the joint article of 1974, the French scientist is transformed into a liberal (p. 162).
- In relation to this aspect, as in that mentioned in The Spontaneous Generation Controversy (1700–1860): The Origin of Parasitic Worms Journal of the History of Biology 1972 5 95 125 Farley and Geison omit in their joint article (footnote 1) information that would undermine their externalist thesis. For example, in Farley's book on spontaneous generation, he stresses that ‘numerous non-experimental issues, were fundamental to the general debate’ (p. 6).
- Roll-Hansen , N. 1979 . Experimental Method and Spontaneous Generation: the Controversy Between Pasteur and Pouchet, 1859–64 . Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences , 34 : 273 – 292 .
- Roll-Hansen , N. 1983 . The Death of Spontaneous Generation and the Birth of the Gene: Two Case Studies of Relativism . Social Studies of Science , 13 : 481 – 519 .
- Roll-Hansen . 1972 . The Spontaneous Generation Controversy (1700–1860): The Origin of Parasitic Worms . Journal of the History of Biology , 5 : 280 – 280 .
- Farley . 1974 . The Spontaneous Generation Controversy , 48 : 4 – 4 .
- Farley and Geison . 1974 . Science, Politics and Spontaneous Generation in Nineteenth-Century France: the Pasteur-Pouchet Debate . Bulletin of the History of Medicine , 48 : 181 – 182 .
- Roll-Hansen . 1972 . The Spontaneous Generation Controversy (1700–1860): The Origin of Parasitic Worms . Journal of the History of Biology , 5 : 281 – 283 . especially
- Pasteur himself stresses the role of this prize-question for his undertaking of work in spontaneous generation Pasteur L. Mémoire sur les corpuscles organisés qui existent dans l'atmosphère, examen de la doctrine des générations spontanées Annales de Chimie et de Physique 1862 64 3 5 110 (pp. 21–2)
- An exception is Farley's book on spontaneous generation Farley J. Geison G.L. Science, Politics and Spontaneous Generation in Nineteenth-Century France: the Pasteur-Pouchet Debate Bulletin of the History of Medicine 1974 48 161 198 in which he mentions the Academy prize-question on the generation of intestinal worms selected in 1851. See footnote 1, p. 65
- See Farley The spontaneous Genration Controversy (1700–1860): The Origin of Parastic Worms Journal of the History of Biology 1972 5 95 125 Farley's article is an exception, a rare historical study on the broad issue of spontaneous generation in the period before 1860. With respect to the period covered, Farley stresses the absence of previous studies. The existence of the Dictionary of Scientific Biography [hereafter DSB], edited by C. C. Gillispie, 16 vols (New York, 1970–80), makes reference to previous work easier, and considerable use has been made of it by the present author.
- Quatrefages, the author of the awarding report, described the motives involved in the choice of the Academy in 1854. Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des Sciences [hereafter CR] Paris 1854 38 166 193 (pp. 167–8)
- See Geus A. Siebold DSB xii 420 422 See also D. Müller, ‘Steenstrup’, DSB, xiii, 9–10.
- On this occasion the announcement of the prize-question seems to have suffered a delay, and candidates may have had only one year to answer the prize-question CR 1854 38 166 193 (p. 178)
- See Florkin M. Beneden DSB I 602 603
- For the list of problems that the experienced candidates should solve, that were implicit in the prize-question, see CR 1854 38 166 193 (p. 178)
- See, for example, the chapter on intestinal worms in Pouchet F.-A. Hétérogénie ou traité de la génération spontanée, basé sur de nouvelles expériences Paris 1859 526 604 Farley fully agrees on this point (footnote 8, pp. 124–5); ‘I cannot imagine—he states after quoting Pouchet—a more valid illustration of the inevitable collapse of the doctrine that parasitic worms arise spontaneously’.
- See letter by Lacaze Duthiers (8 January 1859) read by Henri Milne-Edwards to the Academy a few weeks later, in CR 1859 48 118 120 (p. 120). Lacaze-Duthiers was not an academician at that time
- 1859 . CR , 48 : 30 – 33 . (p. 32)
- The prize-report, written by Quatrefages, is in CR 1858 46 274 279
- See Balbiani's abstract Note relative à l'existence d'une génération sexuelle chez les infuzoires CR 1858 46 628 632 For Balbiani's biography, see M. Klein, ‘Balbinai’, DSB, I, 417–8.
- The connection between the prize-question of the Academy and Balbinai's research was stressed by Claude Bernard in 1862 CR 1862 55 960 965 (pp. 962–3)
- 1862 . CR , 55 : 965 – 965 .
- See Farley J. Gametes and Spores. Ideas about Sexual Reproduction, 1750–1914 Baltimore and London 1982 See also Julius von Sach's classic History of Botany (1530–1860), English translation (Oxford, 1906), especially the section entitled ‘Discovery of sexuality in the cryptogams, 1837–1860’, pp. 436–44. The text of the prize-question is in CR, 22 (1846), 770–1.
- Sachs . 1982 . Gametes and Spores. Ideas about Sexual Reproduction, 1750–1914 442 – 442 . Baltimore and London The awarding report of the Academy, written by Jussieu, is in CR, 30 (1850), 217–26.
- For the importance of this contribution, see Sachs Gametes and Spores. Ideas about Sexual Reproduction, 1750–1914 Baltimore and London 1982 439 441 A. G. Morton, History of Botanical Sciences (London, 1981), pp. 398–404 (especially p. 403); and J. Proskauer, ‘Hofmeister’, DSB, VI 464–68 (pp. 465–6). Making reference to Hofmeister's main book (1851), Proskauer states: ‘with this single publication the core of botany passed from its Middle Ages to the modern period’ (p. 466).
- See Proskauer Hofmeister DSB VI 465 465
- The text of the prize-question is in CR 1856 42 161 163
- De Bary's decision was announced by Dumas to the Academy in 1862 CR 1862 55 552 552
- See Robinson G. De Bary DSB III 611 614 (pp. 612–3)
- See The Spontaneous Generation Controversy (1700–1860): The Origin of Parasitic Worms Journal of the History of Biology 1972 5 95 125
- Geison , G.L. Pasteur . DSB , X 350 – 416 . (pp. 367–8); Farley, Spontaneous Generation (footnote 1), pp. 6, 51 and 114
- Farley . Pasteur . DSB , X 6 – 6 .
- Pasteur . 1862 . Mémoire sur les corpuscles organisés qui existent dans l'atmosphère, examen de la doctrine des générations spontanées . Annales de Chimie et de Physique , 64 ( 3 ) : 22 – 22 .
- See, for example, Claude Bernard's account in the Academy's awarding report of 1862 in CR 1862 55 977 999 Bernard was the rapporteur.
- Farley . 1974 . Spontaneous Generation , 48 : 106 – 106 .
- Valery-Radot , R. 1900 . La vie de Pasteur Paris translated into English by R. L. Devonshire, 2 vols (London, 1901); E. Duclaux, Pasteur. Histoire d'un espirit (Sceaux, 1896); J. Tyndall, ‘Fermentation, and its bearings on surgery and medicine’ [1876] and ‘Spontaneous generation’ [1878] in vol. II of Fragments of Science, 6th edn (London, 1879); E. Roux, ‘L'Oeuvre médicale de Pasteur’, in Centième anniversaire de la naissance de Pasteur (Paris, 1922).
- For example, Tyndall discovered a means of sterilizing by heating substances discontinuously. This technique is sometimes called ‘tyndallization’. For Tyndall's work in the field, see MacLeod R. Tyndall DSB XIII 521 524
- See Crellin J.K. The problem of heat resistance of micro-organisms in the British spontaneous generation controversies of 1860–1880 Medical History 1966 10 50 59
- They emphasize, throughout the section entitled ‘The scientific and political background to the Pasteur-Pouchet debate’, the great influence of Cuvier in the Academy Farley Geison Science, Politics and Spontaneous Generation in Nineteenth-Century France: the Pasteur-Pouchet Debate Bulletin of the History of Medicine 1974 48 163 167
- See section Prize-questions on the reproduction of animals and plants selected in the 1840s and 1850s
- See, for example John I. Ehrenberg DSB IV 288 292 (pp. 290–1). John makes reference to Ehrenberg's relationship with Cuvier
- See, for example Geus A. Siebold DSB XII 420 422
- The other prize-commissioners were Henri Milne-Edwards, Achille Longet, and Victor Coste; CR 1862 55 960 965 (pp. 960–2)
- See Appel T.A. Valenciennes DSB XIII 554 555
- Hallez , L. 1866 . Cours de M. Lacaze-Duthiers. M. Valenciennes . Revue des Cours scientifiques de la France et de l'étranger , 3 : 377 – 384 . (p. 379)
- See Florkin M. Beneden DSB I 602 603
- Florkin , M. Beneden . DSB , I 602 – 603 . See also the list of his periodical publications in the Royal Society's Catalogue of Scientific Papers (London), v (1870), 49–52.
- Farley and Geison . 1974 . Science, Politics and Spontaneous Generation in Nineteenth-Century France: the Pasteur-Pouchet Debate . Bulletin of the History of Medicine , 48 : 168 – 168 .
- 1845 . CR , 20 : 608 – 609 . The awarding jury was composed of Blainville, Serres, Magendie, Duméril and Flourens, who was the rapporteur. Pouchet was to dedicate this Théorie positive de l'ovulation spontanée … (Paris, 1847) to Flourens, an expert in the field who had encouraged Pouchet in his work. Of Pouchet's competitors for priority only Bischoff was to win a prize of the same importance, in 1844. Raciborski only won an honorary mention; CR, 22 (1846), 753–4.
- Pouchet . 1859 . Hétérogénie ou traité de la génération spontanée, basé sur de nouvelles expériences viii – viii . Paris
- The twentieth-century biologist Jean Rostand attaches special importance to this contribution by Pouchet, and also to Pouchet's recognition that this phenomenon occurs within a limited period in the menstrual cycle. Rostand J. Félix-Archimède Pouchet et les méthodes contraceptives Revue d'histoire des sciences et de leurs applications 1969 22 257 258 (p. 257)
- Pouchet . 1847 . Théorie positive de l'ovulation spontanée … 450 – 450 . Paris
- In his Théorie, Pouchet stated: ‘It is not possible any more to believe that the influence of semen stimulates the production of ova and their decay. Cosequently (sic) fertilization cannot be the result of the presence of this fluid in the ovary. Rather, fertilization is the effect of its contact with free ova, that it encounters in the genital ducts, when their expulsion, coincides with its presence in this organs. (My italics.) Pouchet Théorie positive de l'ovulation spontanée … Paris 1847 459 459
- Pouchet . 1847 . Théorie positive de l'ovulation spontanée … 350 – 352 . Paris
- Pouchet . 1847 . Théorie positive de l'ovulation spontanée … 352 – 352 . Paris
- Pouchet . 1847 . Théorie positive de l'ovulation spontanée … 409 – 410 . Paris
- Cole , F.J. 1930 . Early Theories of Sexual Generation Oxford came to the conclusion that penetration of the egg by the sperm was first shown by G. Newport in the early 1850s. See W. C. Williams, ‘Barry’, DSB, I, 476–8 (p. 477), and K. E. Rothschuh, ‘Bischoff’, DSB, II, 160–2 (p. 161). Bischoff, who had a theory of spontaneous ovulation similar to Pouchet's, had disputed that sperm entered into ova, but in 1845 he modified his views on the issue in the face of opposing evidence. In the case of plants, Schleiden's asexual theory was not overthrown until 1856.
- 1859 . CR , 48 : 531 – 531 .
- M. Florkin considers that this was Van Beneden's main contribution to science Valenciennes DSB XIII The antagonism between Van Beneden and Pouchet can be observed in Pouchet's Théorie (footnote 54), pp. 358–9.
- Farley and Geison . 1974 . Science, Politics and Spontaneous Generation in Nineteenth-Century France: the Pasteur-Pouchet Debate . Bulletin of the History of Medicine , 48 : 181 – 182 .
- See Gasking Elizabeth B. Investigations into Generations, 1651–1828 London 1967 137 147 and Leo J. Klosterman, ‘Studies in the Life and Work of Jean Baptiste André Dumas (1800–1884): The Period up to 1850’ (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Kent, 1976), pp. 60–7. Unfortunately S. C. Kapoor's article on Dumas in DSB, IV, 242–8 is only concerned with the French scientist's research in chemistry. See also Farley (footnote 27), especially Chapter 2, ‘The great debate, 1821–1856’, pp. 34–71.
- Klosterman . 1976 . Studies in the Life and Work of Jean Baptiste André Dumas (1800–1884): The Period up to 1850 , 64 – 64 . University of Kent . unpublished Ph.D. thesis
- See Florkin M. Schwann DSB XII 240 245 (pp. 241–2)
- See Gasking Investigations into Generations, 1651–1828 London 1967 147 147
- Klosterman . 1976 . Studies in the Life and Work of Jean Baptiste André Dumas (1800–1884): The Period up to 1850 , 67 – 67 . University of Kent . unpublished Ph.D. thesis
- Pouchet , F.-A. 1864 . Nouvelles expériences sur la génération spontanée et la resistance vitale 93 – 93 . Paris
- Pouchet , F.-A. 1864 . Nouvelles expériences sur la génération spontanée et la resistance vitale xiii – xiii . Paris and 7. The other academicians criticized by Pouchet were Henri Milne Edwards, Victor Coste, Claude Bernard, and Louis Pasteur. In 1847 he had criticized Van Beneden for having changed his views about the nature of sperm. Pouchet (footnote 54), pp. 359–60.
- Pouchet , F.-A. 1853 . Histoire des sciences naturelles au moyen âge … 211 – 211 . Paris
- As a study of Pouchet's list of articles published in the Society's Royal Catalogue of Scientific Papers IV 996 997 confirms, Pouchet had specialized in embryology. It was only after the publication of his Théorie on ovulation in 1847 that he broadened his research interests and became a popularizer. Crellin's article on Pouchet (DSB, XII, 109–10) focuses on the latter view of the French scientist, although he also stresses the value of Pouchet's research on ovulation.
- See Coleman W. Blainville DSB II 186 188 (p. 187). Other students of Blainville included F. L. P. Gervais and H. C. M. Nicard.
- Pouchet stated: ‘I attended some courses by M. de Balinville on the history of the natural sciences [given in 1840-41]. I became so much interested in them, that I started to think about teaching the same subject in my public lectures. When I mentioned [my project] to the famous teacher, he greatly encouraged me [to follow it].’ Pouchet Histories des sciences naturelles au moyen âge … Paris 1853 ii ii
- de Balinville , H.M.D. 1845 . Histoire des science de l'organisation et de leur progrès … Vol. I , xvi – xvi . Paris 3 vols
- de Balinville , H.M.D. 1845 . Histoire des science de l'organisation et de leur progrès … Vol. I , 4 – 4 . Paris 3 vols
- Pouchet . 1853 . Histoire des sciences naturelles au moyen âge … 304 – 304 . Paris
- See Crombie A.C. Augustine to Galileo. The History of Science. A.D. 400–1650 London 1952 120 120 This book includes (pp. 116–28) a useful summary of Albert's views on generation.
- Crombie , A.C. 1952 . Augustine to Galileo. The History of Science. A.D. 400–1650 122 – 122 . London
- Quoted in Crombie A.C. Augustine to Galileo. The History of Science. A.D. 400–1650 London 1952 123 123
- Pouchet stressed that spontaneous generation does not produce an adult but rather an egg Pouchet Hétérogénie ou traité de la génération spontanée, basé sur de nouvelles expériences Paris 1859 7 9
- Farley and Geison . 1974 . Science, Politics and Spontaneous Generation in Nineteenth-Century France: the Pasteur-Pouchet Debate . Bulletin of the History of Medicine , 48 : 196 – 196 .
- See article on Schwann by Florkin M. DSB XII 240 245 especially, 241
- Tulasne , L.R. 1852 . Nouvelles recherches sur l'appareil reproducteur des champignons . CR , 35 : 841 – 842 . Tulsane pointed out that he himself had been carrying out successful research on two types of cryptogam plants that had been considered exceptions: lichens and mushrooms (ibid.). The outstanding contributions made by Tulasne, who supported a cell theory, extended the theory of alternation of generations and carried out experiments with plants, fostered his election to the Academy in the botany section in 1854. See G. Viennot-Bourgin, ‘Tulasne’, DSB, XII, 489–90.
- Pouchet . 1859 . Hétérogénie ou traité de la génération spontanée, basé sur de nouvelles expériences 26 – 27 . Paris
- Pouchet . 1859 . Hétérogénie ou traité de la génération spontanée, basé sur de nouvelles expériences 61 – 61 . Paris There are other cases in the history of science where in transitional state a new theory has been partly accepted without giving up the old one.
- The term ‘progressive’, referring to research programmes, is used here in the sense given to it by Imre Lakatos. See, for example, his paper Falsification and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge Lakatos I. Musgrave A. Cambridge 1970 91 196
- 1854 . CR , 20 : 608 – 609 . (p. 608)
- Pouchet . 1847 . Théorie positive de l'ovulation spontanée 415 – 416 . Paris
- According to Pouchet, these were putrescent organic matter, air and water Hétérogénie ou traité de la génération spontanée, basé sur de nouvelles expériences Paris 1859 216 216
Annals of Science
Volume 45, 1988 - Issue 4