- Maulitz , Russell . 1987 . Morbid Appearances 19 – 31 . Cambridge To complicate matters, I should add that undoubtedly not all pleuritis was phthisis. But there is equally little question that most pleuritis was tuberculous on the wards of urban French hospitals. That pleuritis and phthisis were not coextensive is interesting to the historian (and accessible to his or her methods), but matters little for the themes of this paper.
- Hirsch , Rudolf , ed. 1983 . A Catalogue of the Manuscripts and Archives of the Library of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia Philadelphia see the entries (described below) for Andral, Chomel, Gerhard, Laennec, and Louis.
- Ackerknecht , Erwin . 1967 . Medicine at the Paris Hospital 121 – 127 . Baltimore Joseph Ben-David published a number of articles in the science policy and history of science literature, these collated to a large extent in The Scientist's Role in Society (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1971).
- See, for example Jacyna L. Stephen Au lit des malades: A. F. Chomel's clinic at the Charité, 1828–9 Medical History 1989 33 420 449
- On this episode see Maulitz Morbid Appearances Cambridge 1987 148 149 The episode awaits and deserves a full historical treatment.
- Among modern English language treatments, Ackerknecht's was probably most important in reviving interest in the Broussais phenomenon: Ackerknecht Erwin Medicine at the Paris Hospital Baltimore 1967 61 80 (based on an earlier, 1953 study cited therein). More recently see a trenchant analysis by George Weisz, ‘The Posthumous Laennec: Creating a Modern Medical Hero, 1826–1870’, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 61 (1987), 541–62; see especially pp. 547–50 and 559–61. Also useful is Jacqueline Duffin, Laennec: entre la pathologie et la clinique (Thèse, Université de Paris I, 1985), especially pp. 92–112.
- College of Physicians of Philadelphia MS Z 10/96, Cours de médicine… 1ère année, Paris 1825 (accessioned 5-18-1933). I have collated these lecture notes against those in Paris and Nantes and they do, indeed, represent the material Laennec presented at the Collège de France for his pathological anatomy course. This material is discussed at length both in Maulitz morbid Appearances Cambridge 1987 19 31 especially pp. 94–105; and in Jacqueline Duffin, Laennec (footnote 7), especially pp. 153–178.
- College of Physicians of Philadelphia MS 10a/35 Remarques sur la clinique de Mr Chomel Paris 1832 ‘notes de M. Lacaze’, (accessioned 3-23-10); paragraphs 1–234, 329–480, 616–64, 688–779. In this MS paragraphing is concurrent but clinical aphorisms and comments are interpolated from the clinics of Andral, Louis, and others.
- College of Physicians of Philadelphia MS 10a/169 Remarques sur la clinique de Mr. Louis Paris c. 1860 (accessioned 8-25-05). This MS may well date from a period considerably later than that on which I focus here, i.e. a generation later in the 1850s. But see College of Physicians of Philadelphia MS 10a/35, ‘Remarques sur la clinique de Mr Chomel’, (Paris, 1832), ‘notes de M. Lacaze’, paragraphs 994–1029, taken during the same 1831–1833 period as the (far more lengthy) Chomel aphorisms.
- College of Physicians of Philadelphia MS 10a/3 Cours de pathologie interne par Gabriel Andral Paris 1831–33? (accessioned 3-22-10). The manuscript was presented to the College of Physicians by W. W. Gerhard, who studied under Andral, probably Louis, and others in the early 1830s. Also: College of Physicians of Philadelphia MS 10a/35, ‘Remarques sur la clinique de Mr Chomel’, (Paris, 1832), ‘notes de M. Lacaze’, paragraphs 669–77.
- Huard , Pierre and Imbault-Huart , Marie-Jose . 1982 . Gabriel Andral (1797–1876) . Revue d'histoire des sciences , 35 : 131 – 153 . On hematopathology see Robert Miciotto, ‘Carl Rokitansky: a reassessment of the hematohumoral theory of disease’, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 52 (1978), 183–9.
- Andral . 1831 . College of Physicians of Philadelphia MS 10a/3 Vol. I , leçon de 16 xbre [sic]
- Chomel . College of Physicians of Philadelphia MS 10a/35 paragraphs 4o–5o
- Chomel . College of Physicians of Philadelphia MS 10a/35 paragraphs 101o, 114o
- In a compelling recent article, the classical scholar Wesley D. Smith traces pleuritis over the longue durée, pursuing it into Greek antiquity. Smith ingeniously demonstrates an early transition that occurred in the concept of pleuritis as a localized disorder. I summarize it very briefly here. Smith, too, finds changing conceptions of pleuritis to be a useful dissecting tool in understanding important shifts in anatomical emphasis at serial junctures between the Hippocratic and Alexandrian periods. Hippocratists, declares Smith, have generally been prone to a degree of exaggeration in characterizing theoretical postures revealed in various works of the Hippocratic Corpus. The critical shift, he suggests, occurred at a later point. One Hippocratic view of pleuritis, for example, reflected in the Places in Man, reflected a general orientation toward chest disease and its treatment. Pneumonia was, for example, simply ‘pleuritis doubled’ so that both sides of the chest were affected. This approach to etiology was coupled with certain formulaic therapeutic responses, notably (a) an infinite variety of ptisans and fomentations, applied to re-establish the correct degree of conditions wet or dry; (b) purging at appropriate times; (c) gentle diet; and (d) at least in the Regimen in Acute Diseases, bloodletting. Only at a later date, perhaps one hundred and fifty years after Hippocrates, did clinicians begin to attach the clinical syndrome to the serous membrane lining the lungs. Smith makes a strong circumstantial argument that Erasistratus was the party responsible for this shift, all the more significant because it signalled the advent of a key idea: that one should look for the local seat of a disorder, even one as global and systemic in its manifestations as pleuritis. Smith Wesley D. Pleuritis in the Hippocratic Corpus and after Proceedings of the Sixth International Hippocratic Colloquium Proceedings of the Sixth International Hippocratic Colloquium Quebec Proceedings of the Sixth International Hippocratic Colloquium Quebec September 1987 Quebec City 1989
- Théophile Laennec, of course, was the ‘classical’ exponent of this classical approach; see Duffin Laennec: entre la pathologie et la clinique Thèse Université de Paris I 1985 See also Henry Sigerist, ‘On Hippocrates’, in Henry E. Sigerist on the History of Medicine, edited by Felix Marti-Ibañez (New York, 1960), pp. 97–119.
- Louis . College of Physicians of Philadelphia MS 10a/169 paragraph No. 57. Emphasis added to original. Periodization of this MS is difficult with respect to the dates of lectures audited; its provenance (i.e. that of the pleurisy cases) may be as late as 1860.
- On the approaches used by Hodgin, Carswell, et al., see Maulitz Morbid Appearances Cambridge 1987 205 211 217–9. In general what was missing was the use of large antemortem patient series.
- Or at least so it appears from the MSS examined in this study. But we are again reminded of how careers, and the reputations based upon those careers-professional roles and the rationally reconstructed ‘stories’ later told for often very different purposes about them—may be quite different. See Weisz, ‘The posthumous Laennec’, for an example of how canonization may proceed when the newly glorified hero ‘fits the bill’. For an example of a reputation headed in the opposite direction (not perdition but, maybe worse, mere oblivion), see Maulitz Russell Metropolitan medicine and the man-midwife: the early life and letters of Charles Locock Medical History 1982 26 25 46
- Jacyna , Stephen . 1989 . Au lit des malades: A. F. Chomel's clinic at the Charité, 1828–9 . Medical History , 33
- Stoeber , Victor . 1830 . De l'organisation médicale en France 33 – 39 . Paris for the purposes of this analysis, see especially
- See, for example Triaire Paul Recamier et ses contemporaires, 1774–1852 Paris 1899 cited in Jacyna (footnote 5). The same point holds for Ackerknecht (footnote 4).
- Stoeber . 1830 . De l'organisation médicale en France 35 – 39 . Paris
- Stoeber . 1830 . De l'organisation médicale en France 35 – 39 . Paris
Annals of Science
Volume 47, 1990 - Issue 2
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