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The Archaean controversy in Britain: Part II—The Malverns and Shropshire

D.R. Oldroyd School of Science and Technology Studies, The University of New South Wales, Kensington, New South Wales, 2033, Australia
Pages 401-460 | Received 30 Mar 1991, Published online: 22 Aug 2006

  • Callaway , C. 1878 . “ Sketch of the geology of Shropshire ” . In A Guide to the Botany, Ornithology, and Geology of Shrewsbury and its Vicinity Edited by: Phillips , W. 38 – 38 . Shrewsbury in
  • Oldroyd , D.R. 1991 . The Archaean Controversy in Britain: Part I—The Rocks of St David's . Annals of Science , 48 : 407 – 452 .
  • Sarjeant , W.A.S. and Harvey , A.P. 1979 . “ Uriconian and Longmyndian: a history of the study of the Precambrian rocks of the Welsh Borderland ” . In History of Concepts in Precambrian Geology 181 – 224 . Toronto See also H. S. Torrens, ‘The scientific ancestry and historiography of The Silurian System’, Journal of the Geological Society, London, 147 (1990), 657–62.
  • Beddoes , T. 1791 . Observations on the Affinity between Basaltes and Granite, … from the Philosophical Transactions London
  • Beddoes , T. 1791 . Observations on the Affinity between Basaltes and Granite, … from the Philosophical Transactions 66 – 66 . London This statement was incorrect. There is a band of Carboniferous Limestone running parallel to the eastern flank of the Wrekin, but several non-calcareous Cambrian and Carboniferous deposits intervene.
  • Aikin , A. 1979 . Journal of A Tour through North Wales and Part of Shropshire; With Observations in Mineralogy, and Other Branches of Natural History 191 – 191 . London On Aikin's work in Shropshire, see H. Torrens, ‘Arthur Aikin's mineralogical survey of Shropshire’, British Journal for the History of Science, 16 (1983), 111–53. Aikin was a non-conformist minister in Shrewsbury from 1793 to 1795. (See Torrens, footnote 4.)
  • Aikin . 1797 . Journal of a Tour through North Wales and Part of Shropshire; With Observations in Mineralogy, and Other Branches of Natural History 200 – 200 . London
  • Aikin . 1797 . Journal of a Tour through North Wales and Part of Shropshire; With Observations in Mineralogy, and Other Branches of Natural History 200 – 200 . London
  • Aikin . 1797 . Journal of a Tour through North Wales and Part of Shropshire; With Observations in Mineralogy, and Other Branches of Natural History 191 – 192 . London
  • Aikin . 1797 . Journal of a Tour through North Wales and Part of Shropshire; With Observations in Mineralogy, and Other Branches of Natural History 201 – 201 . London
  • Aikin . 1797 . Journal of a Tour through North Wales and Part of Shropshire; With Observations in Mineralogy, and Other Branches of Natural History 226 – 226 . London
  • Aikin , A. 1811 . Observations on the Wrekin, and on the great coal-field of Shropshire . Transactions of the Geological Society , 1 : 191 – 212 . (pp. 209–10)
  • Townson , R. 1799 . “ A sketch of the mineralogy of Shropshire ” . In Tracts and Observations in Natural History and Physiology 158 – 203 . London Townson, who the same year published a useful monograph on The Philosophy of Mineralogy, later emigrated to Australia, where he was supposed to act as scientific adviser to the administration in New South Wales, but little came of such plans.
  • The difference in this respect the between the work of Aikin and Townson is instructive, for it displays the emergence of the new science of geology, which was growing on the foundations provided by the older branch of natural history, namely mineralogy. Townson, however, was one of the first to use the word petrography in English. (See Torrens Uriconian and Longmyndian: a history of the study of the Precambrian rocks of the Welsh Borderland History of Concepts in Precambrian Geology Toronto 1979 181 224
  • Yates J. Observations on the structure of the Border Country of Salop and North Wales; and of some detached groups of Transition rocks in the Midland Counties Transactions of the Geological Society of London 1826–29 2 237 264 series 2 Yates was one of the founders of the British Association, and a friend of John Phillips, whose work is discussed in Section 5.
  • Townson , R. 1799 . “ A sketch of the mineralogy of Shropshire ” . In Tracts and Observations in Natural History and Physiology 216 – 220 . London in
  • Horner , L. 1811 . On the mineralogy of the Malvern Hills . Transactions of the Geological Society , 1 : 281 – 321 .
  • Horner , L. 1811 . On the mineralogy of the Malvern Hills . Transactions of the Geological Society , 1 : 319 – 319 .
  • Horner , L. 1811 . On the mineralogy of the Malvern Hills . Transactions of the Geological Society , 1 : 296 – 296 .
  • Murchison , R.I. 1839 . The Silurian System, Founded on Geological Researches in the Counties of Salop, Hereford, Radnor, Montgomery, Caermarthen, Brecon, Pembroke, Monmouth, Gloucester, Worcester, and Stafford; with Descriptions of the Coal-Fields and Overlying Formations…In Two Parts London
  • Geikie , A. 1875 . Life of Sir Roderick I. Murchison … Based on his Journals and Letters with Notices of his Scientific Contemporaries and a Sketch of the Rise and Growth of Palaeozoic Geology in Britain … In Two Volumes I – I . London 189 and 205–6.
  • The meaning and application of this term caused great difficulty to stratigraphers in the nineteenth century. In The Silurian System, Murchison applied the term to rocks extending from what is now regarded as the bottom of the bottom of the Cambrian (the Wrekin Quartzite) to the so-called ‘Pentamerus beds’ of the Llandovery Series (Lower Silurian, in the modern sense). In his Siluria (1854), Murchison referred to the Caradoc Formation, rather than the Caradoc Sandstone. If the Cambrian rocks (in the modern sense) which Murchison included in his Caradoc Sandstone (1839) for the Church Stretton area are excluded, then the rocks he designated by this term correspond approximately with those presently classified as Ordovician for that area. See Whittard W.F. Ordovician System Lexique Stratigraphique International: Europe. Fascicule 3a England, Wales & Scotland, Part 3aIVOrdovician Paris 1960 5 26 (pp. 22–23). As a rough rule of thumb, therefore, it is convenient to regard Murchison's ‘Caradoc Sandstone' as Ordovician.
  • Murchison , R.I. 1833–38 . On certain trap rocks in the counties of Salop, Montgomery, Radnor, Brecon, Caermarthen, Hereford, and Worcester; and the effects produced by them upon the stratified deposits . Proceedings of the Geological Society , 2 : 85 – 93 . (p. 86). This paper was read on May 21, 1834. Modern maps give Ludlow (and Wenlock) rocks at the locality indicated by Murchison, faulted into position by the Church Stretton Fault which runs along the western edge of Caer Caradoc. However, they show the Ludlow strata as gently inclined, not heaved up to the vertical. See Geological Survey of Great Britain (England and Wales), Church Stretton: Scale 1:25 000 … (Chessington, 1968), Section 1.
  • Murchison . 1839 . The Silurian System, Founded on Geological Researches in the Counties of Salop, Hereford, Radnor, Montgomery, Caermarthen, Brecon, Pembroke, Monmouth, Gloucester, Worcester, and Stafford; with Descriptions of the Coal-Fields and Overlying Formations … In Two Parts 231 – 231 . London
  • Murchison . 1839 . The Silurian System, Founded on Geological Researches in the Counties of Salop, Hereford, Radnor, Montgomery, Caermarthen, Brecon, Pembroke, Monmouth, Gloucester, Worcester, and Stafford; with Descriptions of the Coal-Fields and Overlying Formations … In Two Parts 231 – 231 . London
  • Modern maps show a fault (the Wrekin Fault) running along the western side of the hill, which is ‘lapped’ to the east by a quartzite (the Wrekin Quartzite). However, there are some exposures of quartzite on the western side towards the north of the hill, which Murchison might reasonably have been considering. See Geological Survey of Great Britain (England and Wales) Telford Scale 1:25 000 Southampton 1977
  • Murchison The Silurian System, Founded on Geological Researches in the Counties of Salop, Hereford, Radnor, Montgomery, Caermarthen, Brecon, Pembroke, Monmouth, Gloucester, Worcester, and Stafford; with Descriptions of the Coal-Fields and Overlying Formations … In Two Parts London1839 416 416 Part 2 The green component, glauconite, is generally indicative of submarine deposition, and the tuffs could, of course, have been deposited in sea water.
  • Murchison . 1839 . The Silurian System, Founded on Geological Researches in the Counties of Salop, Hereford, Radnor, Montgomery, Caermarthen, Brecon, Pembroke, Monmouth, Gloucester, Worcester, and Stafford; with Descriptions of the Coal-Fields and Overlying Formations…In Two Parts London Part 2, 425. The inversion of the strata in the Abberley Hills was first announced in January 1834: R. I. Murchison, ‘On the structure and classification of the Transition rocks of Shropshire, Herefordshire and parts of Wales, and on the lines of disturbance which have affected that series of deposits, including the valley of elevation of Woolhope’, Proceedings of the Geological Society of the Geological Society of London, 2 (1833–38), 13–18 (p. 18).
  • Murchison . 1839 . The Silurian System, Founded on Geological Researches in the Counties of Salop, Hereford, Radnor, Montgomery, Caermarthen, Brecon, Pembroke, Monmouth, Gloucester, Worcester, and Stafford; with Descriptions of the Coal-Fields and Overlying Formations…In Two Parts London Part 2, 418.
  • On Phillips, see Anon., Eminent living geologists I.–John Phillips, M.A., D.C.L. Oxon., LL.D. Cambridge and Dublin, F.R.S., etc., Professor of Geology in the University of Oxford Geological Magazine 1870 1 301 306 decade 1 J. B. Morrell and A. Thackray, Gentlemen of Science: Early Years of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (Oxford, 1981), pp. 439–44; J. M. Edmonds, ‘The first apprentice geologist John Phillips’, The Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine, 76 (1982), 141–54; J. B. Morrell, ‘Science and government: John Phillips (1800–1874) and the early Ordnance Geological Survey of Britain’, in Science, Politics and Public Good: Essays in Honour of Margaret Gowing, edited by N. A. Rupke (Basingstoke and London, 1988), pp. 7–35; J. B. Morrell, ‘The legacy of William Smith: the case of John Phillips in the 1820s’, Archives of Natural History, 16 (1989), 319–35.
  • National Museum of Wales (Cardiff) De la Beche Papers 84, 20G, D
  • National Museum of Wales (Cardiff) Phillips to De la Beche March 1845 6
  • Phillips , J. 1848 . “ The Malvern Hills compared with the Palaeozoic districts of Abberley, Woolhope, May Hill, Tortworth, and Usk ” . In Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, and the Museum of Practical Geology in London Vol. II , 1 – 330 . London (Part 1)
  • Phillips , J. 1855 . On the Geology of the Malvern Hills Worcester
  • Phillips , J. 1871 . Geology of Oxford and the Valley of the Thames Oxford Chapters 2 and 5.
  • Phillips , J. 1848 . “ The Malvern Hills compared with the Palaeozoic districts of Abberley, Woolhope, May Hill, Tortworth, and Usk ” . In Memoris of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, and the Museum of Practical Geology in London Vol. II , 3 – 3 . London (Part 1)
  • However and Morrell . 1988 . Gentlemen of Science: Early Years of the British Association for the Advancement of Science Oxford has recently shown that Phillips differed significantly from Murchison in the way in which palaeontological information should be used in stratigraphy.
  • Phillips . 1848 . “ The Malvern Hills compared with the Palaeozoic districts of Abberley, Woolhope, May Hill, Tortworth, and Usk ” . In Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, and the Museum of Practical Geology in London Vol. II , 27 – 27 . London (Part 1)
  • Phillips J. The Malvern Hills compared with the Palaeozoic districts of Abberley, Woolhope, May Hill, Tortworth, and Usk Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, and the Museum of Practical Geology in London London 1848 II 60 60 (Part 1) (i) and (ii) 50.
  • Phillips , J. 1848 . “ The Malvern Hills compared with the Palaeozoic districts of Abberley, Woolhope, May Hill, Tortworth, and Usk ” . In Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, and the Museum of Practical Geology in London Vol. II , 28 – 28 . London (Part 1)
  • 1842 . Sedgwick's Field Notebook No. 36 held at the Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge, records (pp. 17–20) that he met Phillips in the Malverns with Murchison and Keyserling at the end of July 1842. Sedgwick regarded the main mass of the Malverns as syenite, with indications of stratification, which might, however, only be jointing. Murchison, he recorded, ‘thinks its appearances derived from the altered Silurians’ (p. 17).
  • Phillips J. The Malvern Hills compared with the Palaeozoic districts of Abberley, Woolhope, May Hill, Tortworth, and Usk Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, and the Museum of Practical Geology in London London 1848 II 66 66 (Part 1) The discovery was made on August 1, 1842. For a somewhat more complete account of the circumstances, see J. Phillips, ‘On the occurrence of shells and corals in a conglomerate bed, adherent to the face of a trap rock of the Malvern Hills, and full of rounded and angular fragments of those rocks’, The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, 21 (1842), 288–93.
  • Phillips , J. 1848 . “ The Malvern Hills compared with the Palaeozoic districts of Abberley, Woolhope, May Hill, Tortworth, and Usk ” . In Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, and the Museum of Practical Geology in London Vol. II , 68 – 68 . London (Part 1)
  • Penn , J.S.W. , French , J. , Whitten , D.J.A. and Vinnicombe , J. 1971 . Geologists' Association Guides, No. 4: The Malvern Hills 33 – 33 . Colchester Ann Phillips (1803–1862) acted as housekeeper for her brother from 1829 until her death. While her brother was on his field trips, they would rent a house for the summer and she would keep house. John Phillips coming in at the weekends. The house would hold a portable library and scientific equipment, and Ann would examine, label, and store the specimens brought in from the field. She was, it appears, liked and respected by the London savants and the leading members of the British Association. But the ‘Miss Phillips Conglomerate' is her only recorded original scientific discovery. (I am indebted to Dr J. B. Morrell for these details, pers. comm., 14 November 1990). One may suspect that Phillips's sister was one of those Victorian women who did so much to support science, acting as unpaid and unrecognized research assistants. (As a point of interest, the sketch on page 9 of Phillips's Malvern Memoir shows, in a scenic view overlooking the country to the west of the Malverns, the minute figures of an upright top-hatted geologist (?), bag in hand, apparently expounding something to an attentive bonneted female figure, in dark clothes, carrying a bundle, and slightly stooping—surely John and Ann Phillips!)
  • Phillips . 1848 . “ The Malvern Hills compared with the Palaeozoic districts of Abberley, Woolhope, May Hill, Tortworth, and Usk ” . In Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, and the Museum of Practical Geology in London Vol. II , 135 – 135 . London
  • Phillips . 1848 . “ The Malvern Hills compared with the Palaeozoic districts of Abberley, Woolhope, May Hill, Tortworth, and Usk ” . In Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, and the Museum of Practical Geology in London Vol. II , 48 – 48 . London
  • Phillips . 1848 . “ The Malvern Hills compared with the Palaeozoic districts of Abberley, Woolhope, May Hill, Tortworth, and Usk ” . In Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, and the Museum of Practical Geology in London Vol. II , 49 – 49 . London
  • Phillips . 1848 . “ The Malvern Hills compared with the Palaeozoic districts of Abberley, Woolhope, May Hill, Tortworth, and Usk ” . In Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, and the Museum of Practical Geology in London Vol. II , 139 – 143 . London
  • Apparently Strickland was examining some rocks in a railway cutting. He stepped backwards to avoid a train, only to be run over by another train emerging unexpectedly from the tunnel. The event occurred immediately after the British Association meeting at Hull in 1853. On Strickland as a geologist, see Hamilton W.J. Hugh Edwin Strickland Proceedings of the Geologists' Association 1854 10 xxv xxvi See also W. Jardine, Memoirs of Hugh Edwin Strickland (London, 1868). (I may mention that my personal copy of Phillips's Malvern Memoir formerly belonged to Strickland.)
  • Strickland , H.E. 1851 . On the elevatory forces which raised the Malvern Hills . Philosophical Magazine , : 358 – 365 . series 4, 2
  • Strickland , H.E. On the elevatory forces which raised the Malvern Hills . Philosophical Magazine , 364 – 364 .
  • Jardine . 1854 . Hugh Edwin Strickland . Proceedings of the Geologists' Association , 10 : xxv – xxvi . between 95 and 96.
  • Morrell , R.W. and Sarjeant , W.A.S. 1964 . The geological societies and geologists of Midland England . The Mercian Geologist , 1 : 35 – 48 .
  • 1855 . Old Stones Malvern and London Stones of the Valley (London, 1857); Old Bones (Worcester, 1860); Records of the Rocks (London, 1872); Severn Straits (Tewkesbury, 1870).
  • Judd , J.W. 1888 . Rev. William S. Symonds . Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London , 44 : 43 – 44 . (hereinafter QJGS)
  • Judd , J.W. 1888 . Rev. William S. Symonds . Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London , 44 : 43 – 44 . (hereinafter QJGS)
  • Symonds , W.S. 1855 . Old Stones: Notes on Lectures on the Plutonic, Silurian, and Devonian Rocks in the Neighbourhood of Malvern 34 – 35 . Malvern and London
  • Symonds , W.S. 1855 . Old Stones: Notes on Lectures on the Plutonic, Silurian, and Devonian Rocks in the Neighbourhood of Malvern 29 – 29 . Malvern and London
  • See Bullard D.W. Morris L. Malvern Hills: A Student's Guide to the Geology of the Malverns Peterborough 1989 34 35
  • Symonds , W.S. 1855 . Old Stones: Notes on Lectures on the Plutonic, Silurian, and Devonian Rocks in the Neighbourhood of Malvern 15 – 15 . Malvern and London (In this passage, Symonds was expressing the long-held view that metamorphic rocks such as gneiss represented the first-formed rocks of the Earth's crust; they were primary.)
  • Symonds W.S. Notes on the geology of the Ross district Handbook to Ross and Archenfield 105 120 edited by Anon. (Ross, 1863) (p. 106)
  • Symonds , W.S. and Lambert , A. 1861 . On the sections of the Malvern and Ledbury Tunnels (Worcester and Hereford Railway) and the intervening line of railroad. With a note on the fossils by J. W. Salter … . QJGS , 17 : 152 – 162 . See also W. S. Symonds, On the Geology of the Railway from Worcester to Hereford (London, 1862), 21–32. In the latter publication, Symonds recorded that he was assisted by three clerical friends, and a local resident, Captain Payton, as well as Mr Lambert. Lambert, it seems, did the survey work, and prepared a large sectional diagram, which survives in the archives of the Geological Society (LDGSL 218, 1860). I am inclined to think that there was more than one clerical gentleman in the Malvern area who found it more congenial to play with rocks and trains than attend to clerical duties.
  • Symonds . 1862 . On the sections of the Malvern and Ledbury Tunnels (Worcester and Hereford Railway) and the intervening line of railroad. With a note on the fossils by J. W. Salter … . QJGS , 17 : 22 – 22 . He did not state the nature of this new petrological evidence.
  • See Anon. Harvey Buchanan Holl, M.D., F.G.S. Geological Magazine 1886 3 526 528 decade 3 J. W. Judd, ‘Dr. Harvey Buchanan Holl’, QJGS, 43 (1887), 46–47.
  • Holl , H.B. 1864 . Geological Map of the Malvern Hills (LDGSL 241)
  • See Holl H.B. On the metamorphic rocks of the Malvern Hills British Association Report, 1863 London 1864 70 73 ‘On the geological structure of the Malvern Hills and adjacent districts’, QJGS, 21 (1865), 72–102; ‘Great Malvern, Dr. Grindrod's Museum and the North Hill. Joint meeting with the Cotteswold, Woolhope and Malvern Clubs. Wednesday, 12th September, 1866’, Transactions of the Worcestershire Naturalists' Club 1844–1896 (Worcester, 1897), pp. 106–11; ‘On the geological position of the crystalline rocks of the Malvern Hills’, Transactions of the Woolhope Naturalists' Field Club, 1866, pp. 273–74; ‘A sketch of the geology of the Malvern Hills’, The Transactions of the Malvern Naturalists' Field Club, 1853–1870, Including Papers Illustrative of the Natural History and Geology of the District; by the President, Vice-President, Professor Phillips, Dr. Holl, the late J. W. Salter, F.G.S., Reverend E. Horton, Dr. Griffiths, and W. and J. Barrow (Worcester, 1870), pp. 38–56.
  • Holl . 1865 . “ On the metamorphic rocks of the Malvern Hills ” . In British Association Report, 1863 88 – 88 . London
  • Holl cited chemical evidence from the ‘Reverend Mr Timins' to show that no amount of metamorphism could convert the ‘Cambrian’ rocks of Wales or the Longmynd into rocks like those of the Malverns. Holl quoted some of Timins's experimental results, but see more particularly Timins J.H. On the chemical geology of the Malvern Hills QJGS 1867 23 352 370
  • In a later newspaper article, unidentified other than by author, being seen by me only as a clipping, Holl wrote: ‘Having studied these very ancient rocks in their typical region of the St. Lawrence, and in the seaboard states of America along the eastern flanks of the Alleghenies, I have no hesitation in asserting that in our Malvern Hills we have their precise analogues in every particular’. See Malvern Naturalists' Field Club, Minute Book No. 2, 1868 Malvern Public Library—an enclosed newspaper clipping.
  • Jukes , J.B. 1862 . The Student's Manual of Geology , new edition 432 – 434 . Edinburgh Jukes referred here to the recent work of Murchison and Geikie in the Northwest Highlands (1861), accepting their model for the structure of this region. Murchison had suggested the term ‘Fundamental Gneiss’ for the gneisses of the Northwest Highlands and the Hebrides, designating the next member of the series as Cambrian (today's Torridon Sandstone). He also sought to correlate his Fundamental Gneiss with the Laurentian rocks of Canada. Jukes pointed out that the term ‘Fundamental’ could only be applied with any certainty in relation to the other rocks of Scotland. In other parts of the world, yet lower or older rocks might one day be found. Therefore, he suggested that the simple designation ‘Pre-Cambrian’ be used; and for Scotland a local name such as Hebridean Gneiss was better than Fundamental Gneiss.
  • Dana , J.D. 1863 . Manual of Geology: Treating of the Principles of the Science with Special Reference to American Geological History, for the Use of Colleges, Academies, and Schools of Science 135 – 135 . Philadelphia and London Dana said, however, that ‘Azoic’ (not Precambrian) rocks constituted ‘the only universal formation’.
  • Holl . 1865 . “ On the metamorphic rocks of the Malvern Hills ” . In British Association Report, 1863 99 – 99 . London
  • Newspaper clipping headed ‘Malvern Naturalists' Club 1865’, held in Minute Book No. 2 of the Society Malvern Public Library
  • Symonds , W.S. 1872 . Records of the Rocks: or, Notes on the Geology, Natural History, and Antiquities of North & South Wales, Devon & Cornwall 32 – 38 . London
  • Salter , J.W. 1856 . On fossil remains in the Cambrian rocks of the Longmynd and North Wales . QJGS , 12 : 246 – 251 . and plate; ‘On annelide-burrows and surface markings from the Cambrian rocks of the Longmynd’, QJGS, 13 (1857), 199–206 and plate.
  • Salter . 1856 . On fossil remains in the Cambrian rocks of the Longmynd and North Wales . QJGS , 12 Plate IV
  • Salter . 1856 . On fossil remains in the Cambrian rocks of the Longmynd and North Wales . QJGS , 12 (The role of Palaeopyge ramsayi in the Sedgwick-Murchison controversy is discussed in J. A. Secord, Controversy in Victorian Geology: The Cambrian-Silurian Dispute [Princetor, 1986], pp. 281–3.)
  • See Richardson L. Charles Callaway, M.A., D.Sc. Geological Magazine 1915 2 525 528 decade 6 and obituary and funeral notices, Shrewsbury Chronicle, October 1, 1915, p. 8, October 8, 1915, p. 4.
  • Elliot , E. 1898 . History of Congregationalism in Shropshire 217 – 217 . Oswestry
  • In a paper published in 1877, Callaway recorded that he was in America in 1874 (see Callaway C. On a new area of Upper Cambrian rocks in South Shropshire, with a description of a new fauna QJGS 1877 33 652 672 However, Dr R. H. Fakundiny, State Geologist of the New York State Museum and Geological Survey, informs me (pers. comm., November 16, 1990) that he has no record of Callaway's period at Albany.
  • According to the College's centenary magazine The Hiatt College Wellington Salop 1847–1947 Wellington 20 20 n.d. Dr Callaway, ‘a much respected man in the scientific world, attended the College certain days of the week (complete in cap and gown) to lecture on English, History, Biology, Botany, Physiology, etc., and Mrs Hiatt, perched up on a high chair on a wooden platform, watched with an eagle eye and marked down the unfortunate girls who were unable to answer the Doctor's questions’. (Callaway received his D.Sc. in geology from London University in 1878.)
  • Richardson Charles Callaway, M.A., D.Sc. Geological Magazine 1915 2 525 528 decade 6 facing p. 525. It may be mentioned that although Callaway began his career as a Congregationalist minister, he later lost his faith and became quite a militant contributor to the Agnostic Annual (Rationalist Press Association Annual), and a member of the editorial board of the Rationalist Press. He claimed that lies were continuously and knowingly uttered in Church rituals, but that religions evolved as do ethical and social systems. He looked forward to a future religion of reason, of (I take it) a Comtean character.
  • Callaway , C. 1874 . On the occurrence of a Tremadoc area near the Wrekin in South Shropshire with descriptions of a new fauna . QJGS , 30 : 196 – 196 . (The paper was presented by H. A. Nicholson, a friend of James Nicol, and a sympathizer with the Archaean group, but not active in the Archaean debates.) I take it that most of the fieldwork for Callaway's paper was carried out while he was minister in Wellington.
  • According to Charles Lapworth, however, Callaway's paper ‘was refused publication by the Society, and he was considered to have lost his head’. (See Lapworth C. Address on the “Geology of South Shropshire delivered to the Geological Section of the Birmingham Philosophical Society at the Mason College, on Tuesday 23rd October, 1894’, typescript in Lapworth Archives, Birmingham University, Packet 26.)
  • Callaway , C. 1877 . On a new area of Upper Cambrian rocks in South Shropshire, with a description of a new fauna . QJGS , 33 : 652 – 672 .
  • Salter , J.W. and Aveline , W.T. 1854 . On the “Caradoc Sandstone” of Shropshire . QJGS , 10 : 62 – 75 .
  • Callaway , C. 1878 . On the quartzites of Shropshire . QJGS , 34 : 754 – 763 .
  • See British Geological Survey Telford Sheet SJ 60 and Parts of SJ 70 and 71. Scale 1:25 000 Southampton 1977
  • Callaway . 1878 . On the quartzites of Shropshire . QJGS , 34 : 756 – 756 .
  • Callaway . 1878 . On the quartzites of Shropshire . QJGS , 34 : 760 – 760 .
  • Callaway , C. 1879 . The oldest mountain in England . The Popular Science Review , 3 : 15 – 24 .
  • Allport was a business man who had worked for some years in Bahia. He utilized the techniques of Henry Clifton Sorby to study rocks in thin sections, and argued successfully that igneous rocks of similar type could be discovered in formations of different ages. (See Bonney T.G. Samuel Allport, F.G.S. Geological Magazine 1897 4 430 431 decade 4 In this claim, Allport was going against a trend that was commonly found in the Archaean camp, namely the neo-Neptunian attempts to relate specific lithologies to particular ages.
  • Allport , S. 1877 . On certain ancient devitrified pitchstones and perlites from the Lower Silurian district of Shropshire . QJGS , 33 : 449 – 460 . Like Callaway, Allport heaped scorn on the official map (which had the mass of the Wrekin as a ‘greenstone’). Greenstone is a field term used to designate a dark, fine-grained basic igneous rock, but the Wrekin rocks were light in colour and quartz-rich. As Allport rightly said (p. 449) ‘the term greenstone is the most inappropriate that could possibly be applied to them’.
  • See, for example Toghill P. Geology in Shropshire Shrewsbury 1990 24 24
  • Callaway , C. 1879 . Recent geological investigations in Shropshire . Transactions of the Shropshire Archaeological and Natural History Society , 2 : 77 – 96 . (ii) ‘Further geological discoveries in Shropshire’, Ibid., 3 (1880), 379–86; (iii) ‘The Precambrian rocks of Shropshire—Part I. With notes on the microscopic structure of some of the rocks by Prof. T. G. Bonney …’, QJGS, 35 (1879), 643–69; (iv) ‘On a second Precambrian group in the Malvern Hills’, QJGS, 36 (1880), 536–39; (v) ‘The Precambrian (Archaean) rocks of Shropshire. Part II. With notes on the microscopic structure of some of the rocks, by Prof. T. G. Bonney…’, QJGS, 38 (1882), 119–26; (vi) ‘On a new metamorphic area in Shropshire’, Geological Magazine, decade 3, 1 (1884), 362–66.
  • Callaway . 1879 . Recent geological investigations in Shropshire . Transactions of the Shropshire Archaeological and Natural History Society , 2 : 652 – 652 . It is not clear who first discovered this rock. In 1878, W. S. Symonds (‘On the geology of Church Stretton and Ludlow’, Transactions of the Shropshire Archaeological and Natural History Society, 1 (1878), 395–429 p. 395) wrote: ‘We…find on the westward flanks of the Wrekin a Syenitic gneiss, which I have long considered to be the oldest rock of the Wrekin, and believe that a tunnel through the hill would show an ancient syenitic nucleus similar to that of the Malvern Hills and Malvern Tunnel. I believe also that axis underlies the upheaval of the Longmynds’. There is, however, some doubt as to what Symonds meant by ‘syenitic gneiss’, given that the Primrose Hill gneiss outcrops at the southern end of the Wrekin, not the western side. The continued adherence on Symonds's part to the old ideas enshrined in the Survey's maps and in Murchison's Silurian System is noteworthy. In any case, Callaway wrote an urgent letter to the Midland Naturalist in June 1879, announcing himself as the discoverer: ‘Two Precambrian groups in Shropshire’, Midland Naturalist, 2 (1879), 158–9. This letter claimed analogies between the tuffs and rhyolites of the Wrekin and Hicks's Pebidian in St David's, which Callaway had just visited.
  • Callaway . 1879 . Recent geological investigations in Shropshire . Transactions of the Shropshire Archaeological and Natural History Society , 2 : 647 – 647 .
  • Callaway . 1879 . Recent geological investigations in Shropshire . Transactions of the Shropshire Archaeological and Natural History Society , 2 : 664 – 664 .
  • Holl . 1865 . “ On the metamorphic rocks of the Malvern Hills ” . In British Association Report, 1863 92 – 92 . London
  • Later called the Warren House Volcanics. See Holl On the metamorphic rocks of the Malvern Hills British Association Report, 1863 London 1865 92 92 and Section 17
  • 1879 . Recent geological investigations in Shropshire . Transactions of the Shropshire Archaeological and Natural History Society , 2 : 537 – 538 . Callaway^
  • Callaway . 1879 . Recent geological investigations in Shropshire . Transactions of the Shropshire Archaeological and Natural History Society , 2 : 385 – 385 .
  • Callaway . 1879 . Recent geological investigations in Shropshire . Transactions of the Shropshire Archaeological and Natural History Society , 2 : 661 – 662 .
  • Callaway . 1879 . Recent geological investigations in Shropshire . Transactions of the Shropshire Archaeological and Natural History Society , 2 : 379 – 379 .
  • Callaway . 1879 . Recent geological investigations in Shropshire . Transactions of the Shropshire Archaeological and Natural History Society , 2 : 363 – 363 .
  • See Oldroyd D.R. The Highlands Controversy: Constructing Geological Knowledge through Fieldwork in Nineteenth-Century Britain Chicago and London 1990 202 216
  • Callaway C. How to work in the Archaean rocks Geological Magazine 1881 8 348 353 decade 2 and 420–7; ‘A plea for comparative lithology’, Geological Magazine, decade 3, 2 (1885), 258–64.
  • Callaway , C. 1886 . On some derived fragments in the Longmynd and newer Archaean rocks of Shropshire . QJGS , 42 : 481 – 485 .
  • In a subsequent more popular statement of his views about the Shropshire conglomerates, and how they might be used to determine the relative ages of non-fossiliferous rocks, Callaway specifically introduced the term ‘Longmyndian’ for what we have, until now, been calling ‘rocks of the Longmynd’, or some other circumlocution. See Callaway C. Some ancient Salopian conglomerates Transactions of the Shropshire Archaeological and Natural History Society 1887 11 239 243 Callaway argued that since Uriconian pebbles could be found in the Longmyndian (as at Haughmond Hill), and the Longmyndian must be at least Lower Cambrian in age, the Precambrian age of the Uriconian was certain.
  • Oldroyd . 1990 . The Highlands Controversy: Constructing Geological Knowledge through Fieldwork in Nineteenth-Century Britain 202 – 216 . Chicago and London chapter 8
  • See a report on Lapworth's paper The discovery of Cambrian rocks in the Midlands Midland Naturalist 1882 5 189 189 where one reads: ‘Till lately the Birmingham district was thought to have been accurately described and mapped by the Geological Survey, but Professor Lapworth has during the past few months led the van in a remarkable series of discoveries. Several local geologists have ably followed his lead, and researches are still being carried on which will make considerable differences in the geological maps of this neighbourhood’.
  • See Lapworth C. Notes on geology of the Wrekin area, with an itinerary n.d. [1890?], British Geological Survey archives, Keyworth (I.G.S. 1/1197). This document, with sixteen pages in Lapworth's hand, suggests a detailed itinerary for a group visiting the Wrekin area. It is accompanied by a valuable hand-drawn coloured geological map of the district. (The map is dated 1890.) It may be noted that there are several similar maps in the ‘Lapworth and “Lapworth Age” Collection’ in the archives of the Department of Earth Sciences, University of Birmingham (Item 101), entitled collectively ‘Wrekin geology, prepared for visit of Sir A. Geikie’. Other field maps for the Church Stretton area are to be found in the Lapworth archive (packets 33, 38, 63, 129). (The fact that Geikie was on sufficiently good terms with Lapworth to visit him in Birmingham is to be noted.)
  • Lapworth C. On Olenellus callevei and its geological relationships Geological Magazine 1891 8 529 536 decade 3 and plates.
  • This matter had been sorted out only a short time previously. In 1855, William Logan had had a North American trilobite succession of: 1. Paradoxides; 2. Olenellus; 3. Olenus/Dicellocephalus, but in Sweden Olenellus was found below Paradoxides, not above it. This led Charles Walcott to examine the Cambrian sequence in America and during a period of honeymoon leave he found a full succession in Conception Bay, Newfoundland, with Olenellus below Paradoxides. Thus coherence was established between North American and Scandinavian geology; and Lapworth's work fitted admirably into the emerging faunal succession for the Cambrian. Walcott reported on his work at the International Geological Congress in London in 1888. (See Walcott C. The stratigraphical succession of the Cambrian faunas in North America Nature 1888 38 551 551 It may be remarked that Walcott's lithological sequence was also quite similar to that which was being unravelled in Shropshire.
  • Cobbold E.S. The geology of the Church Stretton district Church Stretton: Some Results of Local Scientific Research Campbell-Hyslop C.W. Shrewsbury 1900–4 II 1 115 3 vols (pp. 60–61)
  • Geikie , A. 1891 . Anniversary address of the President . QJGS , 47 : 48 – 162 .
  • Evidently, this climb-down gave Callaway intense pleasure, as may be seen from a report of his leading a field-trip of amateur naturalists in July 1891. See Anon., Severn Valley Field Club—Lilleshall meeting Midland Naturalist 1891 14 214 216 Callaway was, even at that late data, still deriding the Survey maps of the 1850s.
  • On Blake, see Kendall P.F. Wroot H.E. Geology of Yorkshire: An Illustration of the Evolution of Northern England Vienna 1924 302 302 and ‘F.R.’, ‘Professor J. F. Blake’, Transactions of the Nottingham Naturalists' Society, 54 (1905–1906), 18–20; Oldroyd (footnote 2), 435.
  • Kendall , P.F. and Wroot , H.E. 1924 . Geology of Yorkshire: An Illustration of the Evolution of Northern England 18 – 18 . Vienna ‘F.R.’
  • Blake , J.F. 1887 . “ Introduction to the Monian System of rocks ” . In British Association Report, 1886 669 – 669 . London
  • Blake , J.F. 1890 . On the Monian and basal Cambrian rocks of Shropshire . QJGS , 46 : 386 – 420 . and plate
  • Blake , J.F. 1888 . On the Monian System of rocks . QJGS , 44 : 463 – 547 . and plate (p. 543)
  • Blake . 1890 . On the Monian and basal Cambrian rocks of Shropshire . QJGS , 46 : 387 – 388 . Callaway (footnote 125, [v], 120) had certainly mapped a major fault along the western side of the Longmynd. I have not, however, been able to find a published statement by Callaway before 1890 saying that the structure of the Longmynd was ‘isolated by faults’; and he did not clearly enunciate the idea of a synclinal structure for the Longmynd. He did, however, record some easterly dips at the western side of the Longmynd (ibid., 121). Presumably Blake knew of Callaway's ideas through the informal communication network.
  • British Geological Survey 1:50 000 Series Church Stretton Sheet 166 Southampton 1974
  • Blake . 1890 . On the Monian and basal Cambrian rocks of Shropshire . QJGS , 46 : 406 – 406 . By contrast, the area concerned is today mapped as Helmeth Grit (see footnote 161 and Figure 6).
  • Blake . 1890 . On the Monian and basal Cambrian rocks of Shropshire . QJGS , 46 : 419 – 419 .
  • Hicks , H. 1890 . The effects produced by Earth-movements on Pre-Cambrian and Lower Palaeozoic rocks in some sections in Wales and Shropshire . Geological Magazine , 7 : 558 – 560 . decade 3
  • Blake . 1890 . On the Monian and basal Cambrian rocks of Shropshire . QJGS , 46 : 395 – 395 .
  • Callaway , C. 1891 . On the unconformities between the rock-systems underlying the Cambrian quartzite in Shropshire . QJGS , 47 : 109 – 125 . (113)
  • See British Geological Survey 1:50 000 Series, Sheet 166 Church Stretton Southampton 1974 and Sheet 152 Shrewsbury (Southampton, 1978).
  • Callaway . 1891 . On the unconformities between the rock-systems underlying the Cambrian quartzite in Shropshire . QJGS , 47 : 122 – 123 .
  • Callaway . 1891 . On the unconformities between the rock-systems underlying the Cambrian quartzite in Shropshire . QJGS , 47 : 118 – 118 .
  • Blake , J.F. 1891 . On some recent contributions to Precambrian geology . Geological Magazine , 8 : 482 – 487 . decade 3
  • Callaway , C. 1892 . Unconformities beneath the Cambrian quartzites in Shropshire . Geological Magazine , 9 : 45 – 46 . decade 3
  • Blake J.F. Replies to various criticisms Geological Magazine 1892 9 168 170 decade 3 (p. 170)
  • Lapworth , C. and Watts , W.W. 1894 . The geology of South Shropshire, with special reference to the district to be visited during the long excursion . Proceedings of the Geologists' Association , 13 : 297 – 355 .
  • Such a structure is suggested, and generally accepted by geologists, because of the repetition of certain conglomerate bands in the Western Longmyndian (see Figure 6), which may be matched against each other, even though all dip steeply to the west. See Toghill P. Chell K. Shropshire geology—stratigraphic and tectonic history Field Studies 1984 4 59 101 (p. 65). An alternative model could, of course, invoke repetition due to faulting—but field evidence for such faulting has not been published to date, though I understand that the model is being considered even now by some geologists.
  • Lapworth and Watts . 1894 . The geology of South Shropshire, with special reference to the district to be visited during the long excursion . Proceedings of the Geologists' Association , 13 : 314 – 314 . and 315
  • Geikie , A. 1897 . The Ancient Volcanoes of Great Britain Vol. I , 132 – 132 . London and New York 2 vols
  • Geikie . 1897 . The Ancient Volcanoes of Great Britain Vol. I , 132 – 132 . London and New York 2 vols
  • On Cobbold see Anon., Death of Dr. E. S. Cobbold—Authority on geology—Guardian of public rights Shrewsbury Chronicle November 27 1936 12 12 C. J. Stubblefield, ‘Edgar Stirling Cobbold’, QJGS, 93 (1937), xcvii–xcix; W. F. Whittard, ‘Edgar Stirling Cobbold, D.Sc., A.M.I.C.E., F.G.S.’, Proceedings of the Geologists' Association, 48 (1937), 106–10; W. W. Watts, ‘Edgar Sterling Cobbold, D.Sc., F.G.S.’, Transactions of the Caradoc and Severn Valley Field Club, 10 (1937), 81–94 and plate.
  • Cobbold , E.S. 1927 . The stratigraphical and geological structure of the Cambrian area of Comley (Shropshire) . QJGS , 83 : 551 – 573 . and plate. (in his acknowledgements at the end of this paper, Cobbold stated that he received his first lessons in mapping from his friend Lapworth.)
  • Cobbold The geology of the Church Stretton district Church Stretton: Some Results of Local Scientific Research Campbell-Hyslop C.W. Shrewsbury 1900–4 II 1 115 3 vols This work is still of immense value to geological visitors to Church Stretton, as it gives very precise instructions as to how to find geological exposures of particular interest. (A copy may be found in the Church Stretton Library.)
  • Cobbold . 1900–4 . “ The geology of the Church Stretton district ” . In Church Stretton: Some Results of Local Scientific Research Edited by: Campbell-Hyslop , C.W. Vol. II , 82 – 82 . Shrewsbury 3 vols
  • Cobbold , E.S. and Whittard , W.F. 1935 . The Helmeth Grits of the Caradoc Range, Church Stretton; their bearing on parts of the Pre-Cambrian succession of Shropshire . Proceedings of the Geologists' Association , 46 : 348 – 359 . (They acknowledged that their trench digging at a single locality could not demonstrate the absence of unconformity satisfactorily.)
  • Creig D.C. Wright J.E. Hains B.A. Mitchell G.H. Geology of the Country around Church Stretton, Craven Arms, Wenlock Edge and Brown Clee London1968 37 38 reprinted 1989 and 76
  • Murchison , R.I. 1867 . Siluria: A History of the Oldest Rocks in the British Isles and Other Countries; With Sketches of the Origin and Distribution of Native Gold, the General Succession of Geological Formations, and Changes in the Earth's Surface , fourth edition 14 – 14 . London Murchison (quite correctly) pointed out that the Malvernian rocks were very different from the Laurentian (Lewisian) metamorphics of the Northwest Highlands. His view was that the Malvernians represented the older portions of the Longmynd rocks (Cambrian), and, like rocks in North Wales (which we shall discuss in Part III), were metamorphosed Cambrians.
  • Rutley , F. 1887 . On the rocks of the Malvern Hills . QJGS , 43 : 481 – 516 .
  • Rutley . 1887 . On the rocks of the Malvern Hills . QJGS , 43 : 507 – 507 .
  • Callaway , C. 1889 . “ Sketch of the geology of the crystalline axis of the Malvern Hills ” . In British Association Report, 1888 654 – 654 . London Callaway had already perceived a Shropshire-Malvern analogy for these rocks in an earlier paper: ‘On a second Precambrian group in the Malvern Hills’, QJGS, 36 (1880), 536–39.
  • Green , A.H. 1895 . Notes on some recent sections in the Malvern Hills . QJGS , 51 : 1 – 8 .
  • Acland , H.D. 1898 . On a volcanic series in the Malvern Hills, near the Herefordshire Beacon . QJGS , 54 : 556 – 563 .
  • Irving , A. 1892 . Archaean Limestones on the flank of the Malvern range . Geological Magazine, decade 3 , 9 : 239 – 240 . Irving (another clergyman amateur geologist from Malvern) recorded that he had visited the locality with Callaway, and it was Callaway's suggestion that an Archaean limestone had been discovered.
  • See Lake P. Theodore Thomas Groom Proceedings of the Geologists' Association 1943 99 lxxxii lxxxiv
  • Groom , T.T. 1899 . The geological structure of the southern Malverns, and of the adjacent district to the west . QJGS , 55 : 129 – 169 . and plates
  • Groom . 1899 . The geological structure of the southern Malverns, and of the adjacent district to the west . QJGS , 55 : 152 – 152 .
  • Groom , T.T. 1900 . On the geological structure of portions of the Malvern and Abberley Hills . QJGS , 56 : 138 – 197 . and map
  • British Geological Survey 1:50 000 Series, England and Wales Sheet 216: Tewkesbury Southampton 1988 B. C. Worssan, R. E. Ellison and B. S. P. Moorlock, Geology of the Country around Tewkesbury: Memoir for the 1:50 000 Geological Sheet 216 (England and Wales) (London, 1989). The exact details of Groom's elaborate fold structures (see Figure 20) are not necessarily followed in every detail today, needless to say.
  • In 1934, Cobbold published a good map of the Rushton area, showing the Wrekin Quartzite lying unconformably on the Uriconian of Charlton Hill and the Rushton Schists of Rushton. See Cobbold E.S. Pocock R.W. The Cambrian area of Rushton (Shropshire) Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 1934 223 305 409 and plates (Plate 38)
  • Cobbold . 1927 . The stratigraphical and geological structure of the Cambrian area of Comley (Shropshire) . QJGS , 83 : 557 – 557 .
  • Lapworth C. Watts W.W. Shropshire Geology in the Field: The Jubilee Volume of the Geologists' Association (1858–1908) Monckton H.W. Herries R.S. London 1910 II 739 769 in 2 vols (p. 747). Lapworth had held this idea for a good many years. In a set of teaching notes, entitled ‘Caer Caradoc’, held in the Lapworth archive at Birmingham, dated August, 1894, p. 3 (Packet 33), one may read: ‘Cwm Farm. Very good exposure of what seems to be Torridonian, dipping 15 to 40, … Shews the usual character of Torridonian rock, with very much mica, with blotched red, purple, and green character of the Sandstone as seen in all localities’.
  • That the ‘undivided’ Precambrian of The Cwms is Western Longmyndian is repudiated by modern geologists. See Cowie J.W. Johnson M.R.W. Late Precambrian and Cambrian geological time scale The Chronology of the Geological Record Snelling N.J. Oxford, London, Edinburgh, Boston, Palo Alto, and Melbourne 1985 in (Memoir of the Geological Society, No. 10), pp. 65–72, where it is suggested that the rock concerned may be a feldspathic species at the base of the Wrekin Quartzite (found elsewhere in the Lickey Hills and at Nuneaton). This element, it is suggested might (conveniently) have been lost by thrusting elsewhere in the Caradoc region.
  • This determination is supported in Harland W.B. Armstrong R.L. Cox A.V. Craig L.E. Smith A.G. Smith D.G. A Geologic Time Scale 1989 Cambridge 1990
  • Thorpe , R.S. , Beckinsale , R.D. , Patchett , P.J. , Piper , J.D.A. , Davies , G.R. and Evans , J.A. 1984 . Coastal growth and late Precambrian—early Palaeozoic plate tectonic evolution of England and Wales . Journal of the Geological Society, London , 141 : 521 – 536 .
  • Tucker , R.D. and Pharaoh , T.C. 1991 . U-Pb zircon ages for the Late Precambrian igneous rocks in southern Britain . Journal of the Geological Society, London , 147 : 435 – 443 .
  • Patchett , P.J. , Gale , N.H. , Goodwin , R. and Humm , M.J. 1980 . Rb-Sr whole rock isochron ages of late Precambrian to Cambrian igneous rocks from Southern Britain . Journal of the Geological Society, London , 137 : 649 – 656 . Note that it is an intrusive rock (granophyre) which appears to lie unconformably beneath the Wrekin Quartzite, as in Figure 21. This section therefore leaves the relationship of the Quartzites and the other Uriconians unsettled. Also, it may be noted that there are recent reports of the discovery of a brachiopod in the Wrekin Quartzite, and that the Ercall granophyre is intruded into it rather than overlain unconformably by it. (See G. S. Odin, N. H. Gale, and F. Doré, ‘Radiometric dating of late Precambrian times’, in N. J. Snelling (footnote 206), 65–72 (p. 68).
  • Tucker and Pharaoh . 1991 . U-Pb zircon ages for the Late Precambrian igneous rocks in southern Britain . Journal of the Geological Society, London , 147 : 438 – 438 . and 439
  • Naeser , W.E. , Toghill , P. and Ross , R.J. Jr . 1982 . Fission track ages from the Precambrian of Shropshire . Geological Magazine , 119 : 213 – 214 .
  • For valuable current reviews, see Cocks L.R.M. The geology of South Shropshire Proceedings of the Geologists' Association 1989 100 505 519 and M. D. Brasier, ‘Sections in England and their correlation’, in The Pre-Cambrian-Cambrian Boundary, edited by J. W. Cowie and M. D. Brasier (Oxford, 1989), pp. 82–104. Note that if the age of the Precambrian/Cambrian boundary is reduced too severely, there would be difficulty in accommodating all the Cambrian sediments in the time-interval available.
  • Toghill . 1990 . Geology in Shropshire 21 – 21 . Shrewsbury
  • See, for example Anderton R. Bridges P.H. Leeder M.R. Sellwood B.W. Dynamic Stratigraphy of the British Isles: A Study in Crustal Evolution London, Boston, and Sydney 1979 72 76 5th impression 1987) Here three substantially different models for the Precambrian evolution of the southern margin of the hypothetical Iapetus Ocean are offered.

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