- Winter , J.M. 1989 . The Experience of World War I New York Within this compass, he traces four phases: the short ‘war of illusion’ of 1914, the stalemate and stagnation of 1915, the ‘great slaughter’ of 1916–1917, and the passage revolution to armistice in 1918. The effect was the destruction of three empires and the devastation of a fourth, the economic reduction of Europe and the elevation of America. The Great War saw 70 million men mobilized and nine million killed, and while professing to be the ‘war to end all wars’, mapped lines along which future wars would be fought.
- Cited in Wallace Stuart War and the Image of Germany: British Academics, 1914–1918 Edinburgh 1988 v v
- Dispatches from French Lord Haig Douglas The Times December 1916 10 10 30 reprinted in R. B. Pilcher, ‘Chemists in War’, Chemical News, 115 (2 March 1917), pp. 97–8
- Hartcup , Guy . 1988 . The War of Invention: Scientific Developments, 1914–18 189 – 189 . London
- In the phrase of Terraine John White Heat: The New Welfare, 1914–18 London 1982
- Ramsay , William . 1914 . Science and the State . Nature , 94 October : 221 – 222 . 29 ‘The Place of Science in Industry’, Nature, 94 (12 November 1914), 275; ‘German Methods in Chemistry’, Chemical News, 111 (1 January 1915), 1–2.
- Quoted by Burgess George Applications of Science to Warfare in France Scientific Monthly October 1917 5 289 289
- Cardwell , D.S.L. 1975 . Science and World War I . Proceedings of the Royal Society, A , 342 : 453 – 453 . For comparisons of American and European academic reactions, see Willis Rudy, Total War and Twentieth-Century Higher Learning: Universities of the Western World in the First and Second World Wars (London, 1991); Carol Gruber, Mars and Minerva: World War I and the Uses of the Higher Learning (Baton Rouge, 1975); and Konrad H. Jarausch, Students, Society and Politics in Imperial Germany (Princeton, 1982).
- A point well amplified in David Edgerton's recent work. See his British Scientists and Engineers and the Relations of Science, Technology and War Science, Technology and the Military Forman Paul Sánchez-Ron José Manuel (forthcoming). I am indebted to the author for an advance copy of his paper.
- MacLeod , Roy . 1969 . The Social Framework of Nature in its First Fifty Years . Nature , 224 November : 441 – 444 . 1 ‘Science for Imperial Development: The British Science Guild, 1907–1936’ (forthcoming).
- The most telling arguments were cited in de Beer Gavin The Sciences were Never at War London 1960
- Union des Associations Internationales Les 1978 Organisations Internationales fondés depuis le Contrès de Vienne: liste chronologique avec une introduction par G. Spaekert Brussels 1957 Elisabeth Crawford et al., The Nationalization and Denationalization of the Sciences, Yearbook of the Sociology of Sciences, vol. 16 (Dordrecht, 1922), p. 19; F. S. Northedge, ‘International Intellectual Cooperation within the League of Nations’ (Unpublished PhD thesis, University of London, 1953), p. 24, cited in Stuart Wallace, War and the Image of Germany: British Academics, 1914–1918 (Edinburgh, 1988), p. 279.
- Lyons , F.S.L. 1963 . Internationalism in Europe, 1815–1914 223 – 225 . Leyden
- For the internment of ‘enemy aliens’ attending the British Association Congress in Australia in August, 1914, see MacLeod Roy “Full of Honour and Gain to Science”: Munitions Production, Technical Intelligence and the Wartime Career of Sir Douglas Mawson, FRS Historical Records of Australian Science 1988 7 2 189 201
- On the history of the PhD, see Simpson Renate How the PhD Came to Britain London 1983 chapter 5
- In Germany, Fritz Haber and Walther Nernst were among the more famous chemists in uniform. See Reid Robert W. Tongues of Conscience: War and the Scientist's Dilemma London 1969 36 36 Other well-known scientists, including Max van Laue, Max Planck, Johannes Stark, and Richard Willstatter, managed to remain in civilian dress. See J. L. Heilbron, The Dilemmas of an Upright Man: Max Planck as Spokesman for German Science (Berkeley, California, 1986).
- Whitehead , A.N. The Organisation of Thought (Presidential Address, Mathematical and Physical Science Section, BAAS, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 1916), Chemical News, 114 (11 September 1916), 139.
- See Wilson Trevor The Myriad Faces of War London 1988
- Speaking at Bangor in February 1915, cited in Wilson The Organisation of Thought 220 220
- Talbot , Henry P. 1918 . Chemistry at the Front . Atlantic Monthly , 122 : 265 – 274 . ‘Chemistry Behind the Front’, ibid., 651–63; David Orme Masson, ‘Chemistry and the War’, in Public Lectures on the War, edited by R. Berry and A. Strong (Melbourne, 1915), p. 161.
- Cardwell . Science and World War I . Proceedings of the Royal Society, A , 342 451 – 451 .
- Haber , L.F. 1986 . The Poisonous Cloud: Chemical Warfare in the First World War Oxford
- See Ormandy William Reginald Britain and Germany in relation to the Chemical Trade Royal Society of Arts December 1914 2 reprinted in Chemical News, 111 (1 January 1915), 3–8; ‘The War and British Economic Policy: The Aniline Dye Industry’, Chemical News, 111 (16 February 1915), 97; ‘The War and British Chemical Industry’, Nature, 95 (1 April 1915), 119–20. See also Percy F. Frankland, ‘The Chemical Industries of Germany’, Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, 24 (7), reprinted in Chemical News, 111 (18 May 1915), 255–7; (4 June), 266–8; (11 June), 277–80, 291. The well-known facts of the aniline dye industry and its ‘takeover’ by Germany were assembled for a popular readership in The British Coal Tar Industry: Its Origin, Development and Decline, edited by W. M. Gardener (London, 1915)
- Morgan , Gilbert T. 1917 . Synthetic Chemistry and the Renascence of British Chemical Industry . Chemical News , 115 January : 1 – 3 . 5 13–15
- et al. The Role of Chemical Engineering in Providing Propellants and Explosives for the UK Armed Forces History of Chemical Engineering Furter William F. Washington, DC 1980 see also A. P. Cartwright's history of the Cape Explosives Works: The Dynamite Company: The Story of African Explosives and Chemical Industries, Ltd. (Capetown, 1964), p. 137.
- In 1894, Moulton had been leading counsel for Nobel's in the famous ‘cordite case’ against the British Government. His expert knowledge of nitroglycerine, TNT and explosives manufacture was unrivalled. The suit failed, but on grounds that remain invidious to the government scientists involved. Moulton became a Lord Justice of Appeal in 1906. At the time of his appointment to the high explosives committee, he was nearly 70. See Reid Tongues of Conscience: War and the Scientist's Dilemma London 1969 1 9
- See Moulton Lord The Manufacture of Aniline Dyes in England Gardener London 1915 351 351
- The entangled history by which British Dyes and Levinstein became main subsidiaries of the British Dyestuffs Corporation, together with the related stories of Nobel, Brunner Mond, and United Alkali in the formation of post-war ICI, is well told by Reader W.J. Imperial Chemical Industries: A History London 1970–1975 2 vols
- See Meldola Raphael Professional Chemists and the War Nature AGM, Institute of Chemistry 1915 March 95 18 19 4 Chemical News, 111 (18 March 1915), 128–9.
- W.P.W. 1927 . Arthur William Crossley . Proceedings of the Royal Society, 6–10; Journal of the Chemical Society , ii : 3165 – 3173 . 1896–1927
- Royal Society Archives, CHB . November 1914 . War Committee of the Royal Society , November , Chemistry Subcommittee . Minutes, 26
- Royal Society Archives . January 1915 . Letters of the War Committee, War Office to Secretary, Royal Society January , MS 658 6
- Peddie , J. Taylor . 1915 . British Imperialism, German Kultur Defined . Chemical News , 111 March : 109 – 110 . 3
- Ramsay , William . 1914 . Germany's Aims and Ambitions . Nature , 94 October : 137 – 139 . 8
- Lowie , Robert H. 1914 . International Rivalry in Science . The New Republic , December : 15 – 15 . 19
- November 1914 . Royal Society Archives November , MS 658, Letters of the War Committee, Ramsay to Schuster, 22
- See McLeod Roy Andrews E. Kay Scientific Advice in the War at Sea, 1915–1917: The Board of Invention and Research Journal of Contemporary History 1971 6 2 3 40 and ‘The Origins of the DSIR: Reflections on Ideas and Men, 1915–1916’, Public Administration, 48 (1970), 23–48; Ian Varcoe, ‘Scientists, Government and Organised Research in Great Britain, 1914–16: The Early History of the DSIR’, Minerva, 8 (1970), 192–216; Micheal Pattison, ‘Scientists, Inventors and the Military in Britain, 1915–19: The Munitions Inventions Department’, Social Studies of Science, 13 (1983), 521–67.
- As a key biological processes to be applied on an industrial scale, the Weizmann process was soon transferred to factories in Canada and the United States. See The Essential Chaim Weizmann: The Man, the Statesman, the Scientist Litvinoff Barnet London 1982 244 244 The history of his work on acetone and synthetic rubber is well told by Jehuda Reinharz in Chaim Weizmann: The Making of a Zionist Leader (New York, 1985), chapter 15.
- et al. The Role of Chemical Engineering in Providing Propellants and Explosives for the UK Armed Forces Furter Washington, D.C.
- See Robinson C.S. Kenneth Bingham Quinan The Chemical Engineer November 1966 203 290 297 Jas. Gray, ‘Some Chemical Discoveries which have influenced the Development of South Africa’, South African Journal of Science, 30 (1933), 32–4; G. Taberner, ‘The Explosives and Chemical Industry in South Africa’, South African Journal of Science, 33 (1937), 259–69. Quinan was initially ‘loaned’ by De Beers to the Committee on Supply of High Explosives in December 1914 for nine months, at a salary recovery of £4000 p.a. plus expenses. In December 1915, he was reappointed for a further six months, and then for the duration, until he was ‘re-loaned’ to the Americans in June 1918. A self-taught engineer, ‘KBQ’ was the nephew of W. R. Quinan, an American army officer who had been recruited from California to South Africa by De Beers’ American general manager, Gardner Williams, in 1898, as part of a plan inspired by Cecil Rhodes to create a British counterpart to the explosives factory at Modderfontein outside Johannesburg which, in due course, fell to the Boers in the Anglo-Boer war of 1899–1901. The elder Quinan took the company's business to Sydney, where he died in 1910. See W. R. Quinan, High Explosives (Melbourne, 1912). The relationship between American, South African, and Australian explosives factories, which pivoted on the needs of the mining industry, thus had an uncanny bearing on Britain's munitions effort. See Cartwright (footnote 25), 82, 124 et passim. I am indebted to Mrs L. D. Arnott, Assistant Archivist of Barlow Rand Ltd, of Johannesburg, for this information. This remarkable man lacks a full biography.
- et al. The Role of Chemical Engineering in Providing Propellants and Explosives for the UK Armed Forces History of Chemical Engineering Furter William F. Washington, DC 1980 374 374 William Macnab, ‘Chemical Engineering and Explosives Manufacture’, Transactions of the Institution of Chemical Engineers, 13 (1935), 11.
- CF PRO MUN 7/26 K. B. Quinan
- et al. The Role of Chemical Engineering in Providing Propellants and Explosives for the UK Armed Forces History of Chemical Engineering Furter William F. Washington, DC 1980 375 375
- The original Grillo system, as operated in America, used a German zinc smelter which roasted zinc blendes, but Quinan and the chemists of the Ministry of Munitions substituted brimstone for zinc blende thus simplifying gas purification, reducing the weight of raw materials, and introducing easier methods of operation. See Robson Stanley Chemical Engineering Experiences in the Metallurgical and Chemical Industries Transactions of the Institution of Chemical Engineers 1950 28 159 159 161–4
- At the end of the war, the Ministry produced several volumes of reports giving comprehensive construction and operating details. See Technical Records of Explosives Supply, 1915–18 London 1919
- et al. The Role of Chemical Engineering in Providing Propellants and Explosives for the UK Armed Forces History of Chemical Engineering Furter William F. Washington, DC 1980 375 375
- MacLeod . 1988 . “Full of Honour and Gain to Science”: Munitions Production, Technical Intelligence and the Wartime Career of Sir Douglas Mawson, FRS . Historical Records of Australian Science , 7 ( 2 ) : 189 – 203 .
- See Gregory's S.A. Chemical Engineering as a Profession in the UK The Chemical Engineer April 1972 260 132 132
- See The Nitrogen Problem and the Work of the Nitrogen Products Committee Chemical News November 1917 117 240 242 18 see also Colin Russell et al., Chemists by Profession (Milton Keynes, 1977), pp. 194–6; and British Chemists, edited by A. Findlay and W. H. Mills (London, 1947)
- Haber . 1986 . The Poisonour Cloud: Chemical Warfare in the First World War 107 – 107 . Oxford
- 1915 . Science and Munitions of War . Nature , 95 July : 562 – 564 . 22
- MacLeod and Andrews . 1971 . Scientific Advice in the War at Sea, 1915–1917: The Board of Invention and Research . Journal of Contemporary History , 6 ( 2 ) Willem Hackmann, Seek and Strike: Sonar, Anti-Submarine Warfare and the Royal Navy, 1914–1954 (London, 1984).
- MacLeod and Andrews . 1971 . Scientific Advice in the War at Sea, 1915–1917: The Board of Invention and Research . Journal of Contemporary History , 6 ( 2 )
- 1915 . Royal Society Archives , June MS 658, 17 CHB 28, 28 May 1915.
- 1915 . Royal Society Archives , June CHB 28, Minutes, 24
- Fleming , J.A. 1915 . Science in the War and After the War . Nature , 96 October : 180 – 185 . (Lecture at UCL, 6 October) 14 [Richard Gregory], ‘Science in National Affairs’, Nature, 96 (21 October 1915), 195–6.
- 1916 . The Royal Society: Organisation of Scientific Effort . Chemical News , March : 152 – 152 . 31 ‘Board of Scientific Societies’, Chemical News, 115 (23 February 1917), 92–3; ‘Conjoint Board of Scientific Societies’, Chemical News, 117 (2 June 1917), 311.
- See Winter J.M. The Great War and the British People London 1985 Part II.
- 1916 . Cambridge Review , November : 76 – 76 . 4
- See the review of Seward by Wells H.G. Nature April 1917 99 141 141 19
- Findlay , Alexander . 1916 . Chemistry in the Service of Man London W. J. Pope, ‘Chemistry and the Nation’, Chemical News, 116 (26 October 1917), 199–200; Science and the Nation, edited by A. C. Seward (Cambridge, 1917); Sir William Tilden, Chemical Discovery and Invention in the 20th Century (London, 1917); Sir Richard Glazebrook, Science and Industry: The Place of Cambridge in any Scheme for the Combination (Cambridge, 1917).
- See ‘Neglect of Science’: Report of Proceedings at a Conference held in the Rooms of the Linnean Society, Burlington House, 3 May 1916 London 1916 The conference was widely reported; see, for example, Chemical News, 117 (30 November 1917), 267–9, 276–9, 288–91.
- 1918 . Report of the Committee appointed by the Prime Minister to enquire into the Position of Natural Science in the Educational System of Great Britain [Cd. 9011] 1 [hereafter Thomson Report]. For context, see Lawrence Andrews, The Education Act, 1918 (London, 1976).
- Osler , William . 1915 . Science and War Oxford reviewed in Nature, 96 (16 December 1915), 431
- See Science November 1917 46 427 428 2
- See MacLeod Roy Lloyd George's Munitions Men: Australian Munitions Workers in Britain, 1916–1919 (forthcoming)
- 1921 . History of the Ministry of Munitions London chapter 4, Appendix XIII
- Thomson Report , 170 – 170 . para
- ‘Report on Chemical Instruction in Germany’, 32, quoted in Alter Peter The Reluctant Patron: Science and the State in Britain, 1850–1920 Oxford 1987 225 225 Lothar Burchardt, ‘Professionalisierung oder Berufskonstruktion? Das Beispiel des Chemikers im Wilhelminischen Deutschland’, Geschichte und Gesellschaft, 6 (1988), 326–48. D. S. L. Cardwell suggests there were 4,000 chemists in Germany's chemical industry. Contemporary American estimates of the total chemistry populations were much higher: e.g. 35,000 in Germany, 5,000 in Britain, 2,500 in France and 15,000 in the United States. See William A. Noyes, ‘America's Opportunity in Chemistry’, Scientific Monthly, 24 (1927), 205.
- Guédon , Jean-Claude . Conceptual and Institutional Obstacles to the Emergence of Unit Operations in Europe Edited by: Furter . 64 – 64 . Washington, DC
- Calculations from published Registers give 179 Fellows, 267 Associates and 165 Students, or 611 in total. [Proceedings of the Institute of Chemistry, 1918 (iv), 30.] However, at the end of the war, the Institute reported that 800 members (25% of total membership) had been on active service. Proceedings of the Institute of Chemistry 1919 iv 30 30
- Meadows , A.J. 1974 . Communication in Science 13 – 13 . London and A. C. Chapman, The Growth of the Profession of Chemistry during the Past Half Century (1877–1927), quoted in Alter (footnote 77), p. 230; see also R. M. MacLeod and E. K. Andrews, Selected Science Statistics relating to Research Endowment and Higher Education, 1850–1914 (London, 1976)
- Cardwell , D.S.L. 1972 . The Organisation of Science in England 215 – 215 . London 217
- Donnan , F.G. 1916 . The Times Engineering Supplement , July writing in cited in Chemical News (13 April 1917); Morgan (footnote 24), 2–3
- For the American position see Reynolds Terry S. Defining Professional Boundaries: Chemical Engineering in the Early 20th Century Technology and Culture 1986 27 694 716
- Haber . 1986 . The Poisonous Cloud: Chemical Warfare in the First World War 107 – 107 . Oxford
- For the history and recent sociology of Verfahrenstechnik, see Schoenemann Karl The Separate Development of Chemical Engineering in Germany Furter Washington, DC 249 272 Klaus Buchholz, ‘Verfahrenstechnik (Chemical Engineering)—Its Development, Present State and Structure’, Social Studies of Science, 9 (1979), 33–62.
- See Guédon Conceptual and Institutional Obstacles to the Emergence of Unit Operations in Europe 45 75
- Macnab . 1935 . Chemical Engineering and Explosives Manufacture . Transactions of the Institution of Chemical Engineers , 13 : 13 – 13 .
- “ National Academy of Science (USA), National Research Council Archives, Executive Committee ” . In Military Status of Scientists and Technicians, 1916–17 Edgar Worthington, IME, to NRC, 14 December 1916: ICE to NRC, 18 December 1916.
- Speaking , C.E. 1962 . The Evolution of Chemical Engineering . Transactions of the Institution of Chemical Engineers , 40 : 196 – 196 .
- Public Record Office, DSIR 17/1 Average Number of Members of Staff engaged in Research Work in Pure and Applied Science (excluding Agriculture, Biology, Botany and Geology) 1916
- 1917–18 . Proceedings of the Institute of Chemistry , August : 20 – 20 . 1917
- Beilby , George . 1917 . The Training and Work of the Chemical Engineer . Chemical News , March : 121 – 122 . 16 J. W. Hinchley, ‘The Work of the Imperial College in the Training of Chemical Engineers’, Chemical News (13 April 1917), 169–70 and in the Transactions of the Faraday Society, 13 (1917), 87–8; ‘Chemical Technology at the Imperial College of Science’, Chemical News, 117 (20 December 1918), 383–4.
- Macnab . 1935 . Chemical Engineering and Explosives Manufacture . Transactions of the Institution of Chemical Engineers , 13 : 13 – 13 .
- Robson . 1950 . Chemical Engineering Experiences in the Metallurgical and Chemical Industries . Transactions of the Institution of Chemical Engineers , 28 : 159 – 159 .
- 1918 . Proceedings of the Institute of Chemistry , : 33 – 33 . see ‘Science, Germany and Blind Alley Occupations’, Chemical News, 117 (16 November 1917), 245.
- MacLeod , Roy . 1989 . The “Arsenal” in the Strand: Australian Chemists and the British Munitions Effort, 1916–1919 . Annals of Science , 46 : 45 – 67 .
- See The Waste of Brains: Young Scientists in the Fighting Line The Times December 1915 3 3 24 Rutherford's obituary of Moseley appeared in Nature, 95 (9 September 1915), 33.
- Jaffe , Bernard . 1971 . Moseley and the Numbering of the Elements 131 – 139 . London
- Borchardt , Lothar . 1979 . Germany and International Scientific Communications in the early Twentieth Century , 9 – 9 . MS . I am grateful to Professor Borchardt for sharing this paper with me.
- Royal Society Archives . June 1915 . Chemistry Subcommittee Letters, Louis Jackson to Crossley June , MS 500 15 Crossley to Jackson, 17 June 1915. A list of officers serving in the Special Brigade may be consulted in the PRO at WO 142/334, 338–339. For this information I am indebted to an anonymous referee.
- 1914 . Morning Post , June 5 quoted in Alter (footnote 77), 242
- 1915 . Nature , 95 : 119 – 119 . quoted in Alter (footnote 77), p. 243. For the NPL, see Edward Pyatt, The National Physical Laboratory: A History (Bristol, 1983), pp. 70–71; Russell Moseley, ‘Tadpoles and Frogs: Some Aspects of the Professionalization of British Physics, 1870–1939’, Social Studies of Science, 7 (1977), 423–46
- Dobbie , James . 1917–18 . Presidential Address . Proceedings of the Institute of Chemistry , ii : 19 – 19 .
- MacLeod , Roy and MacLeod , Kay . 1979 . The Contradictions of Professionalism: Scientists, Trade Unionism and the First World War . Social Studies of Science , 9 : 1 – 32 .
- Rudge , Ernest . 1984 . Chemists at War . Chemistry in Britain , 20 ( 2 ) : 138 – 140 .
- 1921 . History of the Ministry of Munitions, XI, The Supply of Munitions, Part II, Chemical Warfare Supplies London
- Gruber . 1975 . Mars and Minerva: World War I and the Uses of the Higher Learning Baton Rouge
- 1916 . The Laboratory Reacts . Atlantic Monthly , 118 October : 544 – 551 .
- See Whitney Willis Rodney Research as a National Duty Chemical News July 1916 42 42 1 Henry P. Talbot, ‘Chemistry and Preparedness’, Science Conspectus, 4 (1916) reprinted in Chemical News (9 February 1917), 68; T. E. Thorpe, ‘Chemistry and the War’ (review of J.R. Whithrow, The Relation of War to Chemistry in America), Nature, 99 (9 August 1917), 463–4.
- 1917 . War Service of Chemists . Chemical News , 117 October : 172 – 172 . 5 Clarence J. West, ‘The Chemical Warfare Service’, in The New World of Science: Its Development during the War, edited by Robert M. Yerkes (Freeport, 1920), II, p. 150; Department of the Interior, Preparedness Census of Mining Engineers, Metallurgists and Chemists (Washington, DC, 1917); Science, 46 (13 July 1917), 32–3.
- 1918 . Science , 48 August : 133 – 135 . 9 See Leo P. Brophy, ‘Origins of the Chemical Corps’, Military Affairs, 10 (1956), 217–26. For an account of the Edgewood Arsenal, modelled on Levinstein's Manchester factory, see James K. Senior. ‘The Manufacture of Mustard Gas in World War I’, Armed Forces Chemical Journal (November–December 1958), 26–9. From other disciplines, Americans came as sound-rangers, intelligence officers and sanitary engineers, learning much from their British counterparts. See Daniel Kevles, The Physicists: The History of a Scientific Community in Modern America (New York, 1978).
- February 1919 . Public Record Office February , Cab. 26/64, 27
- Jones , Daniel . 1983 . “ Chemical Warfare during World War I: A Model of Cooperative Research ” . In Chemistry and Modern Society: Essays in Honor of Aaron J. Ihde Edited by: Parascandola , John and Whorton , James C. 177 – 177 . Washington, DC in For the war work of Johns Hopkins University, see E. Emmet Reid, ‘Reminiscences of World War I’, Armed Forces Chemical Journal, 9 (July–Aug, 1955), 37–9.
- Conant , James . 1970 . My Several Lives; Memoirs of a Social Investigator 41 – 53 . New York chapter 5
- Cochrane , Rexmond . 1978 . The National Academy of Science: The First Hundred Years, 1863–1963 233 – 233 . Washington, DC
- See Crowell Benedict America's Munitions, 1917–1918 Washington, DC 1920 2 vols
- See Burgess George K. Science and the After-War Period Scientific Monthly 1919 8 97 108 (Presidential Address to the Philosophical Society of Washington, 4 January 1919) Paul A. C. Koistinen, ‘The Industrial-Military Complex in Historical Perspective: World War I’, Business History Review, 41 (1967), 378–403.
- Whittemore , Gilbert F. Jr . 1975 . World War I, Poison Gas Research, and the Ideals of American Chemists . Social Studies of Science , 5 : 135 – 163 . (p. 162); Jones (footnote 113)
- See Coulter John The Contribution of Science to the Welfare of the Nation Scientific Monthly 1927 24 193 205
- Pope , W.J. 1919 . Chemistry and the War . Chemical News , 118 October : 80 – 80 . 17
- See Rennie Edward The Importance of Chemistry: Lessons of the War Adelaide 1917 David Rivett, ‘Chemistry and Industry: Some Points for Consideration’, Science and Industry, 1 (1919), 41–4.
- See Lodge Oliver Report to the Council of the University of Birmingham, 1919 Chemical News 1919 February 118 104 104 reprinted in 28
- See Heath Frank The Government and the Organisation of Scientific Research Chemical News March 1918 118 127 129 14 134–7
- See The History of the Formation of the Institution of Chemical Engineers Transactions of the Institution of Chemical Engineers 1923 1 vii xiii ‘The Foundations of the Institution’, The Chemical Engineer (April 1972), 135–9; H. W. Thorp, ‘1916–1939: The Early Years’, The Chemical Engineer (June 1974), 384–5.
- Spearing , C.S. 1962 . The Evolution of Chemical Engineering . Transactions of the Institution of Chemical Engineers , 40 : 196 – 196 .
- et al. The Role of Chemical Engineering in Providing Propellants and Explosives for the UK Armed Forces History of Chemical Engineering Furter William F. Washington, DC 1980 377 378 For the early history of ICI, see Reader (footnote 28).
- See Gregory Richard Research and the State Nature October 1917 100 121 122 18 Charles A. Parsons, ‘Science and the War’ (Presidential Address, BAAS, Bournemouth, 1919), reprinted in Chemical News, 118 (19 September 1919), 141–5.
- Bragg , W.L. 1919 . The Nation's Debt to Science . Nature , 103 April : 141 – 142 . 24
- See Shutt Frank T. The Organisation of Canadian Chemists Canadian Chemical Journal January 1919 reprinted in Chemical News, 118 (28 February 1919), 101–2; A. E. Leighton, ‘A History of the Australian Chemical Institute, 1914–1932’, Proceedings of the Royal Australian Chemical Institute, 21 (1954), 127–34, 145–54, 167–84; Ian D. Rae, ‘Chemists at ANZAAS: Cabbages or Kings?’ in The Commonwealth of Science: ANZAAS and the Scientific Enterprise in Australasia, 1881–1988, edited by Roy MacLeod (Melbourne, 1988), pp. 174–7.
- See Pilcher R.B. The Profession of Chemistry London 1919
- MUN 7/539 Technical Mission to Germany, 1919 Memorandum regarding the Industrial Position at Cologne 1919 March 4
- Dewar , George A.B. 1921 . The Great Munitions Feat, 1914–1918 London
- Pope , William J. 1919 . Chemistry and the War . Chemical News , 119 October : 179 – 180 . 17 Report of the British Mission appointed to visit Enemy Chemical Factories in the Occupied Zone engaged in the Production of Munitions of War in February, 1919, 1921 [Cmd. 1137], 10.
- See Reader Imperial Chemical Industries: A History London 1970–1975 2
- Ewart , Alfred and Wilsmore , N.T.M. 1921 . “ The Present Position of Chemistry and Chemists ” . In Report of the 15th AAAS Congress 28 – 28 . Melbourne Section B 135; W. J. Pope and Lord Moulton expressed similar sentiments at the Anniversary Dinner of the Chemical Society on 27 March 1919; see ‘War Work of British Chemists’, Nature, 103 (3 April 1919), 92–3.
- 1918 . War and Peace . Nature , 102 November : 201 – 202 . 14
- Bragg . 1919 . The Nation's Debt to Science . Nature , 103 April 24
- Moulton , Lord . 1919 . Science and War 7 – 7 . Cambridge 59. See Julius Stieglitz, ‘The New Chemical Warfare’, Yale Review (1918), 493–511.
- Pollard , A.F. April 1916 . “ History and Science: a Rejoinder ” . In History Vol. 1 , April , 25 – 25 . reprinted in Pollard, The Commonwealth at War (London, 1917), 102
- It is estimated that of the 800,000 British war deaths, artillery accounted for 58%; machine gun and rifle fire, 39%. Gas casualties rose from 7·2% in 1917 to 15% in 1918, but fatalities fell from 3·4% to 2·9%. Among all belligerent armies, there were 1·5 million gas casualties, and 90,000 deaths. Only 17,000 Allied deaths were attributed to gas (35% among British, and 33% among US troops), but this underestimates the number who died from respiratory illnesses after the war. See Winter The Experience of World War I New York 1989 138 138 140
- Ever to be relived in the science classroom. See Flintham A.J. Gas Warfare in World War I Education in Chemistry March 1978 15 157 157
- See Slotten Hugh R. Humane Chemistry or Scientific Barbarism? American Responses to World War I Poison Gas, 1915–1930 Journal of American History 1990 77 476 498
- Haldane , J.B.S. 1925 . Callinicus: A Defence of Chemical Warfare London
- Protests against the use of chemical weapons formed part of the background to scientists' anti-war groups in the 1930s. See, for example, Werskey Gary The Visible College London 1978 William McGucken, Scientists, Society, and State: The Social Relations of Science Movement in Great Britain, 1931–1947 (Columbus, 1984); Peter J. Kuznick, Beyond the Laboratory: Scientists as Political Activists in 1930s America (Chicago, 1987). Ironically, far less attention was given to the use of high explosives, which had wreaked far greater havoc among the nations of Europe.
Annals of Science
Volume 50, 1993 - Issue 5