- According to Hugh G. J. Aitkens, this is because the essence of technology is knowledge and ‘invention is a process by which information comes to be organized in new configurations or gestalts’. Aitken Hugh G.J. The Continuous Wave: Technology and American Radio, 1900–1932 Princeton 1985 522 522
- For the history of the induction coil, see Fleming J.A. The Alternative Current Transformer in Theory and Practice London 1893 II 1 65 2 vols G. Shiers, ‘The Induction Coil’, Scientific American, 224 (May, 1971), 80–7; W. D. Hackmann, ‘The Induction Coil in Medicine and Physics, 1835–1877’, in Studies in the History of Scientific Instruments, edited by C. Blondel, F. Parot, A. Turner, and M. Williams (London, 1989), pp. 235–50. See also [A. M. Tanner], ‘The History of Tension-Reducing Transformers’, Electrical Review, 30 (1892), 666–8.
- For Jablochkoff's induction coil, see Langdon W.E. On a New Form of Electric Light Journal of the Society of Telegraph Engineers 1877 6 303 316 A. Bernstein, ‘Concerning the History of Secondary Generators’, The Electrician, 18 (1887), 565–7; ‘M. Jablochkoff's Transformers’, The Electrician, 20 (1888), 480–1. Refer also to F. Uppenborn, History of the Transformer (London, 1889), pp. 13–16.
- Fleming . 1893 . The Alternative Current Transformer in Theory and Practice Vol. II , 66 – 70 . London 2 vols
- Thomson , W. 1881 . Presidential Address of Section A . Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science , : 513 – 518 . (p. 518). C. W. Siemens, ‘President's Inaugural Address’, The Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, No. 1 (1877), 6–34 (p. 18). Without strict proof, Siemens suggested 30-mile transmission of the fall's energy by means of a copper rod of 3 inch diameter. Siemens later proposed use of intermediate voltage (1200 volts) for the transmission. Siemens, ‘Address’, Journal of the Society of Arts, 31 (1882–1883), 6–13. The central problem was power loss along the line, which is determined by the product of current C and voltage drop ΔV along the line. As ΔV is the product of current C and the resistance of the line R, the loss of power is C 2 R. Thus, as C becomes smaller, the loss becomes smaller. Given the output of a dynamo, only high voltage transmission made maintaining small current possible. For such recognition, see W. E. Ayrton, ‘Electricity as a Motive Power’ [lecture at the British Association], Nature, 20 (1879), 568–71.
- Desprez , M. 1881 . British Patent Specifications , in in Fleming (footnote 2), 71. Through the subsequent demonstrations, however, Desprez employed a high tension direct current. See, W. E. Ayrton, ‘Some Notes on the Frankfurt International Electrical Exhibition. II, A Page of Modern History’, Nature, 44 (1891), 521–4.
- Hughes , Thomas . 1983 . Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society 1880–1930 87 – 87 . Baltimore
- For Gaulard and Gibbs's secondary generator, see Gaulard and Gibbs's System of Electrical Distribution Engineering 1883 35 205 206 ‘The Secondary Generator of Gaulard and Gibbs’, Electrical Review, 16 (1885), 25–6; Hughes (footnote 7), 86–95; Fleming (footnote 2), 71–81.
- [Anonymous] Distribution of Electricity Engineering 1883 36 480 480 Refer also to [leading article], ‘The Early History of the Alternate-Current Transformer’, The Electrician, 21 (1888), 272–3.
- In the early stage of power engineering, not every AC system employed transformers. For example, the Paddington terminus station, one of the earliest terminal stations in Britain, employed Gordon's ‘divided mains’ instead of transformers. The divided main system had many troubles and was finally abandoned. See Parsons R.H. The Early Days of the Power Station Industry Cambridge 1940 42 51
- Uppenborn . 1889 . History of the Transformer 13 – 16 . London Fleming (footnote 2), 119–335.
- Zipernowsky , Charles . 1886 . On Distributing Electricity by Transformers . Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science , : 816 – 817 .
- Hopkinson , J. 1884 . The Gaulard and Gibbs Secondary Generators . Electrical Review , 14 : 262 – 262 .
- [Editorial] The Efficiency of Secondary Generators Electrical Review 1884 14 277 277 M. Jules Sacia, ‘The Efficiency of Secondary Generators’, Electrical Review, 14 (1884), 307–8; M. Hospitalier, ‘The Efficiency of Secondary Generators’, Electrical Review, 14 (1884), 372–3; M. Desprez, ‘The Efficiency of Secondary Generators’, Electrical Review, 14 (1884), 416–17; Galileo Ferraris, ‘Theoretical and Experimental Researches on the Secondary Generators of Gaulard and Gibbs’, Electrical Review, 16 (1885), 343.
- Hopkinson . 1884 . The Gaulard and Gibbs Secondary Generators . Electrical Review , 14 : 262 – 262 .
- See Hopkinson J. Prof. Galileo Ferraris on Secondary Generators Electrical Review 1885 16 387 388 Ferraris to Hopkinson, (26 April 1885), in Electrical Review, 16 (1885), 410.
- W. E. Ayrton's discussion of Kapp's, Mackenzie's and Forbes's paper on the Alternate Current Transformers Journal of the Society of Telegraph Engineers and Electricians 1888 17 165 165 Priority of publication, however, should be given to A. Potier, ‘Mesure de l'énergie dépensée par un appareil électrique’, Journal de Physique, 10 (1881), 445–6.
- Ferraris , Galileo . 1885 . Theoretical and Experimental Researches on the Secondary Generators of Gaulard and Gibbs . Electrical Review , 16 : 343 – 346 . 366–8, 392–5, 413–16, 435–7, 457–60, 480–2.
- Editorial Secondary Generators or Transformers Electrical Review 1885 16 536 536
- Gaulard , L. and Gibbs , J. Dixon . 1885 . Secondary Generators or Transformers . Electrical Review , 17 : 508 – 508 . Hughes (footnote 7), 89
- Ferraris . 1885 . Theoretical and Experimental Researches on the Secondary Generators of Gaulard and Gibbs . Electrical Review , 16 : 482 – 482 .
- 1885 . The Zipernowsky-Déri System of Distributing Electricity . Electrical Review , 17 : 92 – 95 . 114–17 (on p. 93 they mention Ferraris's result). Refer also to A. A. Halacsy and G. H. von Fuchs, ‘Transformer invented 75 Years Ago’, Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, 80 (1961), 121–8. Zipernowsky was an inventor who made a self-exciting AC generator. For his AC system, refer to ‘The Zipernowsky System of Electric Illumination’, Engineering, 35 (1883), 551–3. Zipernowsky and his friends emphasized that what they achieved was not a new transformer but a new system of alternating current. It comprised not only closed transformers, but also semi-automatic regulations, parallel connections, and so on, which guaranteed economic efficiency superior to DC.
- Ferraris , Galileo . 1885 . The Zipernowsky-Deri Transformer . Electrical Review , 17 : 140 – 141 .
- On the Grosvenor Gallery station, see Echoes from the West End The Electrician 1886 16 335 335 The Grosvenor Gallery', Electrical Review, 19 (1886), 434. On Gaulard's death, see Hughes (footnote 7), 94.
- Ferraris , Galileo . 1885 . The Zipernowsky-Deri Transformer . Electrical Review , 17 : 140 – 140 .
- Ewing , J.A. 1885 . Experimental Researches in Magnetism . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society , 176 : 523 – 640 . J. Hopkinson, ‘On the Magnetization of Iron’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 176 (1885), 455–69. For hysteresis, Matthias Dörries, ‘Prior history and aftereffects: Hysteresis and Nachwirkung in 19th-century Physics’, Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences, 22:1 (1991), 25–55.
- Rayleigh . 1886 . Notes on Electricity and Magnetism. I. On the Energy of Magnetized Iron . Philosophical Magazine , 22 : 175 – 175 . 83 (p. 179). This paragraph was erased in his Scientific Papers, 3 vols (New York, 1964).
- Ewing . 1885 . Experimental Researches in Magnetism . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society , 176 : 552 – 555 .
- Hopkinson , J. 1887 . Note on Induction Coils or “Transformers” . Proceedings of the Royal Society , 42 : 164 – 167 . G. Kapp, ‘Induction Coils Graphically Treated’, The Electrician, 18 (1887), 502–4, 524–5, 568–71 (especially, pp. 570–1).
- J. E. H. Gordon and R. E. Crompton's discussion on G. Kapp's, Mackenzie's and Forbes's paper of the Alternate Current Transformer Journal of the Society of Telegraph Engineers and Electricians 1888 17 194 205 R. E. Crompton, ‘Central Station Lighting: Transformers v. Accumulators’, Journal of the Society of Telegraph Engineers and Electricians, 17 (1888), 349–71 (p. 366).
- Swinburne , James . 1889 . The Design of Transformers . Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science , : 741 – 741 . A full report was published as James Swinburne, ‘The Design of Transformers’, The Electrician, 23 (1889), 492–5, 523–6.
- The magnetizing current, or, the exciting current meant the primary current with secondary circuit open (i.e., at no load). More exactly it denoted a ‘wattless component’ of the primary current, lagging 90° behind the primary electromotive force. This component was called ‘magnetizing’ because it merely generates magnetic fields without doing any work. In an unloaded transformer, nearly all of the primary current is the magnetizing component, because the transformer does no work. As the secondary load increases, the magnetizing component of the primary current decreases, while the watt component increases, and energy is transmitted to the secondary of the transformer. For closed transformers, the decrease of the magnetizing component was so rapid that it was less than 10% even at 1/10 load. On the other hand, however, the magnetizing current occupies a considerable portion even at full load in open transformers. How rapidly the magnetizing component decreased, therefore, determined the efficiency of the transformer at various loads. This watt-wattless consideration in electrical engineering had its origin in Swinburne's armature-reaction theory. See Swinburne The Design of Transformers Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science 1889 524 524 Refer also to M. Dolivo-Dobrowolsky, ‘On the Efficiency of Transformers’, The Electrician, 29 (1892), 369–71.
- The neglect of eddy current was criticized by The Electrician. But it admitted that ‘[Swinburne's] discussion of the problem is more detailed and in many respects more complete than any of his predecessors’. See [leading article], Mr. Swinburne on the Design of Transformers The Electrician 1889 23 522 523
- See the table in Swinburne The Design of Transformers Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science 1889 494 494 This was based upon the assumption that the all-day load was equal to two hours of full load.
- Swinburne . 1889 . The Design of Transformers . Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science , : 525 – 525 .
- W. H. Preece's discussion of Swinburne The Design of Transformers The Electrician 1889 23 526 526
- G. Forbes's discussion of Swinburne The Design of Transformers The Electrician 1889 23 525 525 Harris J. Ryan, ‘Transformers’, The Electrician, 24 (1890), 239–41, 263–5 (p. 265).
- [Leading Article] Mr. Swinburne on the Design of Transformers The Electrician 1889 23 523 523 L. Duncan and W. F. C. Hasson, ‘Some Tests on the Efficiency of Alternating Current Apparatus’, Electrical World, 15 (1890), 242–4 (p. 243).
- Swinburne , J. 1890 . Swinburne's Hedgehog Transformer . Electrical Engineer , 10 : 519 – 520 . On the advertisement of the commercial success of Hedgehog transformers, see ‘The Swinburne “Hedgehog” Transformer’, Electrical Engineer, 10 (1890), 232; ‘The Hedgehog Transformer’, The Electrician, 25 (1890), 651–2. On its criticism, see Nikola Tesla, ‘Swinburne's “Hedgehog” Transformer’, Electrical Engineer, 10 (1890), 332; William Stanley, ‘Plant Efficiency with Open and Closed Circuit Transformers’, Electrical Engineers, 10 (1890), 642–3. See also T. Reid's defence of the open transformer on p. 369 of the same issue and Swinburne's reply, ‘Plant Efficiency with Hedgehog Transformer’, Electrical Engineer, 11 (1891), 287–8.
- Swinburne , J. 1891 . Transformer Distribution . Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers , 20 : 163 – 195 . (pp. 183–9)
- Refer to the discussion of Swinburne by Mordey Fleming Kapp Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers 1891 20 203 211 in 227–32. For the influence of Swinburne's paper, see [Editorial], ‘Alternating Transformers’, Electrical Review, 28 (1891), 321.
- Evershed , S. 1891 . The Magnetic Circuit of Transformers: Closed versus Open . The Electrician , 26 : 536 – 536 .
- For magnetic leakage refer to Kunitzsch Typen von Sternverzeichnissen in astronomischen Handschriften des zehnten bis vierzehnten Jahrhunderts Wiesbaden 1966 below
- Mordey , W.M. 1889 . Alternate Current Working . Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers , 18 : 616 – 623 .
- For these electrostatic wattmeters, see Notes The Electrician 1888 22 212 212 J. Swinburne, ‘The Electrometer as a Wattmeter’, Proceedings of the Physical Society, 11 (1891), 122–5.
- See, Ayrton's discussion Ginzel F.K. Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie Leipzig 1914 III 172 176 2 vols Fleming, ‘Notes on Alternate Currents’, The Electrician, 21 (1888), 141–3.
- For a description of Swinburne's dynamometer-wattmeter, see Swinburne J. Bourne W.F. Testing Iron The Electrician 1890 25 648 650 (read at the British Association meeting in 1890) Also see, ‘Swinburne's Non-Inductive Wattmeter’, Electrical Engineer, 12 (1891), 236–7.
- The discrepancies among engineers regarding the iron loss can be seen in [Editorial] The Losses in the Iron Cores of Transformers Electrical Review 1892 30 312 314 Ayrton's discussion of Kapp (footnote 17), 166; ‘Notes’, The Electrician, 22 (1888), 212. The so-called textbook formula of the quadrant electrometer is: d = k(A - B)[C - (A + B)/2], where A and B is the potentials to be measured, and C is the potential of the charged needle of the electrometer.
- This method had been first published in 1885, but had been neglected until he republished it in 1888. Blakesley T.H. Alternating Currents: Upon the Use of the Two-Coil Dynamometer with Alternating Currents The Electrician 1885 15 390 392 Blakesley, ‘On a Method of Determining the Difference between the Phase of two Harmonic Currents of Electricity having the same Period’, Proceedings of the Physical Society, 9 (1888), 165–7.
- Swinburne's discussion of Kapp's Alternate-Current Machinery Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers 1889 97 61 61
- Blakesley , T.H. 1891 . Further Contributions to Dynamometry, or the Measurement of Power . Philosophical Magazine , 31 : 346 – 354 . W. E. Ayrton and J. F. Taylor, ‘Proof of the Generality of certain Formula published for a Special Case by Mr. Blakesley’, Philosophical Magazine, 31 (1891), 354–8.
- Perry , J. 1891 . Mr Blakesley's Method of Measuring Power in Transformers . Proceedings of the Physical Society , 11 : 164 – 172 . The result however depended upon how magnetic leakage was defined. In this paper, Perry defined it as the percentage difference between mutual inductance M and two self-inductances L, N, that is x = 1 - M/√LN. On the contrary, Sumpner defined it as (Ip - Is)/Is. With this definition, Perry's reasoning proved wrong. See Sumpner's discussion of Perry, The Electrician, 27 (1891), 141.
- Swinburne . 1891 . The Electrometer as a Wattmeter . Proceedings of the Physical Society , 11 : 122 – 125 .
- Ayrton , W.E. and Sumpner , W.E. 1891 . The Measurement of the Power given by any Electric Current to any Circuit . Proceedings of the Royal Society , 49 : 424 – 439 . J. Swinburne, ‘The Measurement of Electric Power by Means of a Voltmeter’, Industries, 10 (18910, 306–7.
- At that time, there were several different AC voltmeters. The most popular one was Cardew voltmeter. Besides this, William Thomson modified his electrometer to measure AC voltage, and Swinburne designed the electrostatic voltmeter. See Swinburne J. Electrical Measuring Instruments Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers 1892 110 1 32 (pp. 14–15)
- Fleming , J.A. 1891 . The Measurement of Electric Power given to an Inductive Circuit . The Electrician , 27 : 9 – 10 . W. E. Ayrton and W. E. Sumpner, ‘Alternate Current and Potential Difference Analogies in the Methods of Measuring Power’, Proceedings of the Physical Society, 11 (1891), 172–85.
- [Leading Article] Alternate Current Difficulties The Electrician 1892 29 60 61
- Mordey's discussion of Swinburne's Transformer Distribution Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers 1891 20 203 211
- [Leading Article] Exact Science The Electrician 1891 26 607 607
- Ryan . 1890 . Transformers . The Electrician , 24 especially, a table on page 264
- Ewing , J.A. 1891 . Magnetism in Iron and Other Metals, LII . The Electrician , 27 : 602 – 602 .
- Ewing , J.A. 1891 . A Method of Measuring the Heat Developed on Account of Magnetic Hysteresis in the Core of a Transformer . The Electrician , 27 : 631 – 632 . This method consisted of comparing the heat generated from the two transformers, one made magnetically active and the other inactive. Ewing's result was mentioned in ‘The Dissipation of Energy through Reversals of Magnetism in the Core of a Transformer’, The Electrician, 28 (1891), 111.
- Thomson , J.J. 1892 . On the Heat Produced by Eddy Currents in an Iron Plate Exposed to an Alternate Magnetic Field . The Electrician , 28 : 599 – 600 .
- Ewing , J.A. 1892 . On Magnetic Screening, Eddy Current, and Hysteresis, in Transformer Cores . The Electrician , 28 : 631 – 634 .
- [Leading Article] Eddy Currents in Transformer Cores The Electrician 1891 28 630 631 (p. 631)
- 1890 . Electrical Engineer , 9 : 221 – 221 .
- Fleming , J.A. 1892 . The Harmonic Analysis of Transformer Curves . The Electrician , 28 : 295 – 296 . 326–7; ‘Transformer Predetermination’, The Electrician, 28 (1892), 635–5, 677–9; ‘Transformer Design’, The Electrician, 29 (1892), 56–8. The ‘cosine of lag’ was Blakesley's and the ‘plant efficiency’ was Kapp's naming.
- Fleming's discussion of Swinburne's Transformer Distribution Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers 1891 20 229 229 Fleming's discussion of Swinburne (footnote 57), 41–2.
- Swinburne's . 1891 . Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers , 20 : 244 – 245 . reply
- Swinburne , J. 1892 . The Probable Future of Condensers in Electric Lighting . The Electrician , 28 : 227 – 228 . Fleming, ‘Transformer Design’, (footnote 69), 58.
- See the recollection of MacGregor-Morris in MacGregor-Morris J.T. Ambrose Fleming—His Life and Early Researches Journal of the Television Society 1946 4 266 273 (p. 268)
- Fleming's discussion of Swinburne Electrical Measuring Instruments Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers 1892 110 42 42
- Fleming , J.A. 1892 . Experimental Researches on Alternate-Current Transformers . Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers , 21 : 594 – 686 . It also mentions a hitherto unknown phenomena in AC transformers, that is, the surge of current at the instant of making and breaking of the switch, and some speculative reasoning on its causes.
- W. Wright's discussion of Fleming Experimental Researches on Alternate-Current Transformers Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers 1893 22 25 25
- These discussions were held on December 1 and 8, 1892, and on January 12 and February 9, 1893, and published in Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers 1892 21 694 713 727–47; Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, 22 (1893), 2–33, 78–84. Fleming's reply was made on February 9, and was published in Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, 22 (1893), 84–114.
- Fleming . 1892 . Experimental Researches on Alternate-Current Transformers . Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers , 21 : 602 – 627 .
- Fleming . 1892 . Experimental Researches on Alternate-Current Transformers . Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers , 21 : 624 – 624 .
- For the experimenter's regress, see Collins H.M. Changing Order: Replication and Induction in Scientific Practice , second edition Chicago 1992 For a historical discussion of calibration, see S. Shapin and S. Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air-Pump: Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Life (Princeton, 1985), chapters 5, 6.
- For Victorian metrology, see Schaffer Simon Late Victorian Metrology and its Instrumentation: A Manufactory of Ohms Invisible Connections: Instruments, Institutions, and Science Bud Robert Cozzens Susan E. Bellingham, Washington 1992 23 58 G. Gooday, ‘The Morals of Measurement: Precision and Constancy in Late Victorian Physics’ (unpublished manuscript, read at the History of Science Society meeting in Washington, 1992).
- Fleming . 1892 . Experimental Researches on Alternate-Current Transformers . Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers , 21 : 598 – 600 .
- Fleming to William Thomson, February 4, 1887, in Kelvin Collection, Cambridge University Library, MS Add 7342. For the Kelvin Balance, refer to Thomson W. On New Standard and Inspectional Electric Measuring Instruments Journal of the Society of Telegraph Engineers and Electricians 1888 17 540 556 [Anonymous], ‘Sir William Thomson's New Electric Measuring Instruments’, The Electrician, 19 (1887), 28–31; ‘The Electric Measuring Instruments of Lord Kelvin’, The Electrician, 37 (1896), 238–40. For the Kelvin voltmeter, see A. W. Meikle, ‘Sir William Thomson's Chain of Electrostatic Voltmeters’, The Electrician, 24 (1889), 6–7, 30–1, 59–60, 91.
- Fleming . 1892 . Experimental Researches on Alternate-Current Transformers . Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers , 21 : 601 – 601 .
- Fleming . 1892 . Experimental Researches on Alternate-Current Transformers . Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers , 21 : 624 – 625 .
- Fleming . 1892 . Experimental Researches on Alternate-Current Transformers . Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers , 21 : 613 – 613 .
- For the concept of literary technology, see Shapin S. Pump and Circumstance: Robert Boyle's Literary Technology Social Studies of Science 1984 14 481 520
- Fleming . 1892 . Experimental Researches on Alternate-Current Transformers . Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers , 21 : 595 – 596 .
- W. M. Mordey's and R. E. B. Crompton's discussion of Fleming Experimental Researches on Alternate-Current Transformers Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers 1892 21 729 729 738–40
- Fleming . 1892 . Experimental Researches on Alternate-Current Transformers . Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers , 21 : 660 – 663 .
- Fleming . 1892 . Experimental Researches on Alternate-Current Transformers . Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers , 21 : 658 – 658 .
- Fleming . 1892 . Experimental Researches on Alternate-Current Transformers . Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers , 21 : 659 – 659 .
- Fleming . 1892 . Experimental Researches on Alternate-Current Transformers . Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers , 21 : 657 – 657 .
- Fleming . 1892 . Experimental Researches on Alternate-Current Transformers . Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers , 21 : 667 – 667 .
- Fleming suggested that the cause of this curiosity was due to the capacity of the shunt coil, which makes the shunt current advanced in phase with the series current. Fleming Experimental Researches on Alternate-Current Transformers Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers 1892 21 671 675
- ‘The reading was 11 watts, and the calculated loss by copper and iron in the transformer … was 10·3; so the wattmeter is practically correct’. Swinburne Bourne Testing Iron The Electrician 1890 25 649 649 (read at the British Association meeting in 1890)
- Swinburne to Kelvin Kelvin Collection, Cambridge University Library, MS Add 7342 1892 March 23
- Swinburne . 1892 . Electrical Measuring Instruments . Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers , 110 : 17 – 17 .
- Kelvin's discussion of Swinburne Electrical Measuring Instruments Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers 1892 110 54 54
- Swinburne's discussion of Fleming Experimental Researches on Alternate-Current Transformers Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers 1892 21 695 696
- See Fleming's reply Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers 1893 22 84 115 (pp. 85–94). See also a comment of The Electrician in ‘Dr. Fleming on Transformers’, The Electrician, 30 (1893), 446–8 (p. 447).
- Bedell , Frederick , Miller , K.B. and Wagner , G.F. 1893 . Hedgehog Transformer and Condensers . The Electrician , 32 : 15 – 18 . A. E. Kennelly, M. I. Pupin and C. Steinmetz's discussion of Bedell's ‘Hedgehog Transformer’, Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, 10 (1893), 519–27.
- Swinburne , J. 1888 . Practical Electrical Measurement London Preface
- Swinburne , J. 1888 . Practical Electrical Measurement 82 – 82 . London
- Fleming had used the potentiometer in measuring heavy currents in the Victoria Electrical Station and in calibrating other instruments in the lamp factory of the Edison and Swan Company. Fleming J.A. On the Use of Daniell's Cell as a Standard of Electromotive Force Philosophical Magazine 1885 20 126 140 ‘On the Measurement of Large Electric Current’, Industries, 1 (1886), 78–9, 127–8, 152.
- J. A. Fleming's discussion of Hughes's inaugural address at STEE in 1886 Journal of the Society of Telegraph Engineers and Electricians 1886 15 65 65
- Swinburne , J. 1889 . Induction and Other things . (review of Fleming's Alternate Current Transformer in Theory and Practice, i) Electrical Review , 25 : 376 – 377 . 410–12, 444–5, 467–9 (p. 410). For evidence that this anonymous article was written by Swinburne, see J. Swinburne, ‘Transformer Distribution’, Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, 20 (1891), 187.
- Swinburne . 1892 . Electrical Measuring Instruments . Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers , 110 : 1 – 1 .
- Maxwell , J.C. 1865 . A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field . Philosophical Transaction of the Royal Society , 155 : 459 – 512 . (pp. 473–5). Maxwell put the L, M, N of the circuits as constant. But, because this could no longer be applied to the closed transformer, Hopkinson employed the magnetic circuit method in 1887, which became the standard one for the closed transformers. John Perry, however, employed Maxwell's original method for closed transformers. See Perry (footnote 54).
- On the physical laboratories in late nineteenth-century Britain, see Sviedries R. The Rise of Physical Laboratories in Britain Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 1976 7 405 436 G. Gooday, ‘Precision Measurement and the Genesis of Physics Teaching Laboratories in Victorian Britain’, British Journal for the History of Science, 23 (1990), 25–51.
- Kapp , G. 1889 . Alternate-Current Machinery . Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers , 97 : 1 – 42 . (p. 29)
- [Leading Article] Alternate Current Difficulties The Electrician 1892 29
- Swinburne , J. 1892 . The “Drop” in Transformers . Industries , 13 : 139 – 139 .
- Evershed . 1891 . The Magnetic Circuit of Transformers: Closed versus Open . The Electrician , 26 : 477 – 477 .
- [Leading Article] Exact Science The Electrician 1891 26 608 608
- For electrical engineering laboratories and workshops in the early 1890s, see Jamieson A. London Electrical Engineering Laboratories Proceedings of the International Electrical Congress held in Chicago in 1893 AIEE New York 1894 220 230
- Fleming to Lodge Lodge Collection, University College London, MS Add 89 1891 May 23
- ‘Prof. Fleming's Memo’ Committee Report, University College London, MS 1892 January 4 ‘A History of the Chair of Electrical Engineering in UCL, 1885–1903’, in Fleming Collection, University College London, MS Add 122.
- Hopkinson , John . 1892 . Test of Two 6,500-Watt Westinghouse Transformers . The Electrician , 29 : 196 – 200 . 225–7
- Ayrton , W.E. and Sumpner , W.E. 1892 . The Efficiency of Transformers at Different Frequencies . The Electrician , 29 : 615 – 619 . idem. ‘Open and Closed Magnetic Circuit Transformers’, The Electrician, 30 (1892), 87–8.
- On the opening of Fleming's new laboratory, The Electrician commented: ‘Useful as the results of a properly-directed course of applied science may be to the students for whom these laboratories are primarily concerned, we may confidently expect that valuable original work will be done … by the professors and their staffs’. [Editorial] The Electrician 1893 31 113 113
- [Editorial] The Practical Measurement of Alternating Electric Currents Electrical Review 1893 32 202 203
- Fleming . 1892–1893 . The Practical Measurement of Alternating Electric Currents . Journal of the Society of Arts , 41 : 869 – 869 . See also ‘New Kelvin Engine-Room Wattmeter’, The Electrician, 30 (1893), 477.
- 1896 . Notes . Electrical Review , 38 : 116 – 116 . (on Fleming's Cantor Lecture on Transformer)
- Fleming . 1896–1897 . Alternate Current Transformer (Cantor Lecture) . Journal of the Society of Arts , 45 : 699 – 741 . (p. 715)
- Swinburne , James . 1897 . Transformers . Electrical Review , 41 : 647 – 649 .
Annals of Science
Volume 52, 1995 - Issue 1
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