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Annals of Science Volume 52, 1995 - Issue 3
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J. J. Thomson at the cavendish laboratory: The history of an electric charge measurement

Nadia Robotti Dipartimento di Fisica, Università di Genova, C.N.R.-Gruppo Nazionale Storia della Fisica, Via Dodecaneso 33, I-16145, Genoa, Italy
Pages 265-284 | Received 22 Feb 1994, Published online: 18 Sep 2006

  • Thomson , J.J. 1893 . Notes on Recent Researches into Electricity and Magnetism 189 – 189 . Oxford
  • Thomson , J.J. 1897 . Cathode Rays . The Electrician , May : 104 – 111 . 21 idem, ‘Cathode Rays’, Philosophical Magazine, 44 (1897), 293–316.
  • See, for example Anderson D.L. The Discovery of the Electron Princeton 1964 E. Whittaker, A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity (New York, 1952); G. E. Owen, ‘The Discovery of the Electron’, Annals of Science, 11 (1956), 172–82; D. J. Price, ‘Sir J. J. Thomson, O.M.F.R.S.’, Nuovo Cimento, 4 (1956), Supplement, 1609–29; N. Robotti, I primi modelli dell'atomo: dall'elettrone all'atomo di Bohr (Turin, 1978); S. M. Feffer, ‘Arthur Schuster, J. J. Thomson, and the Discovery of the Electron’, Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences, 20, Pt. 1 (1990), 33–61; I. Falconer, ‘Corpuscles, Electrons and Cathode Rays: J. J. Thomson and the “Discovery of the Electron”’, British Journal for the History of Science, 20 (1987), 241–76; M. Chayut ‘J. J. Thomson: the Discovery of the Electron and the Chemist’, Annals of Science, 48 (1991), 527–44; H. Kragh, ‘Concept and Controversy: Jean Becquerel and the Positive Electron’, Centaurus, 32 (1989), 203–40.
  • A preliminary study on the subject was published by Robotti N. La tela del ragno: storia di una misura di carica elettrica Scritti di Storia della Scienza in onore di Giovanni Battista Marini Bettolo nel 75° compleanno a cura di A. Balio and L. Paoloni, Rendiconti della Accademia Nazionale delle Scienze detta dei XL, Serie V, 14 (1990). 378–91.
  • J. J. Thomson to E. Rutherford, Cambridge 23 E. Rutherford correspondence Cambridge University Library Cambridge 1899 July
  • Stoney , G.J. 1891 . On the cause of the double lines and the equidistant satellites in the spectra of gases . Scientific Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society , 4 : 518 – 529 .
  • Stoney , G.J. 1881 . “ On the Physical Units of Nature ” . In Report of the British Association, Forty-fourth Meeting, Belfast, 1874 Vol. 11 , 381 – 390 . published with the same title in Philosophical Magazine Proceedings of the Royal Dublin Society, 3 (1883).
  • Robotti , N. 1979 . L'elettrone di Stoney . Physis , 21 : 103 – 124 .
  • Helmholtz , H. 1881 . On the modern development of Faraday's conception of electricity . Journal of The Chemical Society , : 277 – 304 . (The Faraday Lecture, delivered before the Fellows of the Chemical Society, in the Theatre of the Royal Institution, on Tuesday, April 5, 1881)
  • Stoney . 1881 . “ On the Physical Units of Nature ” . In Report of the British Association, Forty-fourth Meeting, Belfast, 1874 Vol. 11 , 389 – 389 . published with the same title in Philosophical Magazine
  • Fitzgerald , G.F. 1897 . Dissociation of atoms . The Electrician , May : 102 – 102 . 21
  • This subject is covered excellently in paragraph 5 of Falconer Corpuscles, Electrons and Cathode Rays: J. J. Thomson and the “Discovery of the Electron” British Journal for the History of Science 1987 20 241 276
  • Thomson . 1897 . Phil. Mag. , May : 311 – 311 . 21
  • Thomson . 1897 . Phil. Mag. , May : 312 – 312 . 21
  • Kelvin's 1902 proposal Kelvin Lord Aepinus atomized Philosophical Magazine 1902 3 257 283 to use the term ‘electron’ in place of corpuscle is highly significant. It reflected the need to include the two historically different concepts of electron and ion in a single term. The first concept was unitary charge and the second meant more generally an atom of matter associated to a charge.
  • Wilson , C.T.R. November 1893 . Sidney Sussex College November , 8 correspondence of J. J. Thomson, Cambridge University Library, Cambridge.
  • Wilson , C.T.R. 1895 . On the formation of cloud in absence of dust . Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society , 8 : 306 – 306 .
  • For further information on this subject and more generally on Wilson's attitude to study condensation processes, see Galison P. Assmus A. Artificial clouds, real particles The Uses of Experiment Gooding D. Pinch T. Schaffer S. Cambridge 1989 in
  • Thomson , J.J. 1893 . On the effect of electrification and chemical action on a steam-jet, and of water vapour on the discharge of electricity through gases . Philosophical Magazine , 36 : 313 – 327 .
  • Helmholtz , R. 1887 . Versuche mit einem Dampfstrahl . Annalen der Physik , 32 : 1 – 15 .
  • Helmholtz , R. and Richarz , F. 1890 . Ueber die Einwirkung chemischer und electrischer Processe auf den Dampfstrahl und uber die Dissociation der Gase, insbesondere des Sauerstoffs . Annalen der Physik , 40 : 161 – 202 .
  • Bidwell , S. 1890 . On the electrification of a steam-jet . Philosophical Magazine , 29 : 158 – 162 .
  • Aitken , J. 1892 . On some phenomena connected with cloudy condensation . Proceedings of the Royal Society , 51 : 408 – 439 .
  • Thomson , J.J. November 1898 . E. Rutherford correspondence , November , Cambridge : Cambridge University Library . letter to E. Rutherford, Cambridge, 22
  • Wilson , C.T.R. 1897 . Condensation of water vapour in the presence of dust-free air and other gases . Philosophical Transactions , 189 : 265 – 307 .
  • Roentgen , W.K. 1896 . Sur une nouvelle espèce de Rayons . Journal de Physique teorique et appliquée , 5 : 101 – 108 . translated from Sitzungsberichte der Wurzburger physik. medic. Gesell (December 1895).
  • Wilson , C.T.R. 1896 . On the effect of Roentgen Rays on cloudy condensation . Proceedings of the Royal Society , 59 : 338 – 339 .
  • Becquerel , H. 1896 . Sur quelques propriétés nouvelles des radiations invisioles émis par divers corps phosphorescentes . Comptes Rendus , 122 : 559 – 560 .
  • Wilson , C.T.R. 1895–16 . On the action of Uranium rays on the condensation of water vapour . Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society , 9 October : 333 – 338 . 28 May 1898)
  • Wilson . 1895–16 . On the action of Uranium rays on the condensation of water vapour . Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society , 9 October : 338 – 338 . 28 May 1898) idem, ‘On the condensation nuclei produced in gases by the action of Röntgen rays, Uranium rays, ultra-violet light, and other agents’, Philosophical Transactions, 192 (1899), 403–53.
  • Thomson , J.J. and Rutherford , E. 1896 . On the passage of electricity through gases exposed to Roentgen rays . Philosophical Magazine , 42 : 392 – 407 .
  • Thomson , J.J. 1899–1900 . Uber die Masse der trager der negativen elektrisierung in gasen von niederen Drucken . Physikalische Zeitschrift , 1 : 20 – 22 . idem, ‘On the existence of masses smaller than the atoms’, Report of the Sixty-ninth meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Dover, September 1899, Philosophical Magazine, 48 (1899), 547–67.
  • Thomson . 1899–1900 . Uber die Masse der trager der negativen elektrisierung in gasen von niederen Drucken . Physikalische Zeitschrift , 1 : 547 – 548 .
  • Thomson and Rutherford . 1896 . On the passage of electricity through gases exposed to Roentgen rays . Philosophical Magazine , 42 : 392 – 407 . E. Rutherford, ‘On the electrification of gases exosed to Roentgen rays and the absorption of Roentgen radiation by gases and vapours’, Philosophical Magazine, 43 (1897), 241–55. J. S. Townsend, ‘Applications of diffusion to conducting gases’, Philosophical Magazine, 45 (1898), 469–80; idem, ‘The diffusion of ions into gases’, Philosophical Transactions, 193 (1900), 129–58; idem, ‘The diffusion of ions produced in air by the action of a radio-active substance, ultra-violet light and point discharges’, Philosophical Transactions, 195 (1901), 259–78. J. Zeleny, ‘On the ratio of the velocities of the two ions produced in gases by Roentgen radiation and some related effects’, Philosophical Magazine, 46 (1899), 120–54; idem, ‘On the velocity of the ions produced in gas by Roentgen Rays’, Philosophical Transactions, 195 (1900), 193–234. C. T. R. Wilson, ‘On the comparative efficiency as condensation nuclei of positively and negatively charged ions’, Philosophical Transactions, 193 (1900), 289–308.
  • Thomson , J.J. 1899 . On the theory of the conduction of electricity through gases by charged ions . Philosophical Magazine , 47 : 253 – 268 .
  • Thomson , J.J. 1898 . On the charge of electricity carried by the ions produced by Roentgen rays . Philosophical Magazine , 46 : 528 – 545 .
  • Thomson . 1898 . On the charge of electricity carried by the ions produced by Roentgen rays . Philosophical Magazine , 46 : 528 – 528 .
  • On this argument see, for example Crowther J.G. The Cavendish Laboratory, 1874–1974 New York 1974 R. T. Glazebrook, ‘The Cavendish Laboratory 1876–1900’, Nature, 110 (1926), Supplement 52–8.
  • Wilson , C.T.R. 1911 . On a method of making visible the paths of ionising particles through a gas . Proceedings of the Royal Society , 85 : 285 – 288 . idem, On an expansion apparatus for making visible the tracks of ionizing particles in gases and some results obtained by its use', Proceedings of the Royal Society, 87 (1912), 277–90. On this subject see Gooding, Pinch and Schaffer (footnote 18).
  • Rutherford , E. 1897 . The velocity and rate of recombination of the ions of gases exposed to Roentgen radiation . Philosophical Magazine , 44 : 422 – 440 .
  • Zeleny , J. 1898 . Air electrified by the discharging action of ultraviolet light . Philosophical Magazine , 45 : 272 – 273 .
  • Townsend , J.S. 1899 . The diffusion of ions into gases . Proceedings of the Royal Society , 65 : 192 – 196 .
  • This condition required for condensation was established experimentally by Wilson Condensation of water vapour in the presence of dust-free air and other gases Philosophical Transactions 1897 189 265 307
  • Stokes , G. 1851 . On the alleged necessity for a new general equation in hydrodynamics . Philosophical Magazine , : 157 – 160 . new series 1
  • Townsend , J.S. 1895 . On electricity in gases and the formation of clouds in charged gases . Proceeding of the Cambridge Philosophical Society , 9 October : 244 – 259 . 28 16 May 1898 idem, ‘On the electrical properties of newly prepared gases’, Philosophical Magazine, 45 (1898), 125–51.
  • Thomson , J.J. 1903 . Conduction of Electricity through Gases Cambridge French translation: Passage de l'électricité a travers les gaz (Paris, 1912).
  • For a general discussion of the experimental difficulties connected with the measurement of the charge of the electron see Millikan R.A. The Electron Chicago 1917
  • Wilson , H.A. 1900 . Variation of the electric intensity and conductivity along the electric discharge in rarefied gases . Philosophical Magazine , 49 : 505 – 516 .
  • Thomson . 1899 . Phil. Mag. , 48 : 554 – 554 .
  • Thomson . 1893 . Notes on Recent Researches into Electricity and Magnetism 58 – 58 . Oxford
  • Hertz , H. 1887 . Ueber eine Einfluss des ultravioletten Lichtes auf die electrische Entladung . Annalen der Physik und Chemie , 31 : 983 – 1000 .
  • Elster , J. and Geitel , H. 1890 . Uber den hemminden Einfluss des Magnetismus auf lichtelectrische Entladungen in verdunnten Gasen . Annalen de Physik und Chemie , 41 : 166 – 176 .
  • Thomson . 1893 . Notes on Recent Researches into Electricity and Magnetism 62 – 62 . Oxford
  • Thomson . 1899 . Phil. Mag. , 48 : 548 – 548 .
  • In 1898, the problem of interpreting the photoelectric effect was still completely open. The phenomenology gathered was vast, and because there was no distinction made between low and high pressures, it appeared to be extremely complicated. After Lenard and Wolf's hypothesis Lenard P. Wolf M. Zerstauben der Korper durch das ultraviolette Licht Annalen der Physik und Chemie. 1889 2 443 456 that ‘metallic dust’ was responsible for the discharge was abandoned, the photoelectric effect was generically interpreted in terms of the molecules of the surrounding gas which, when they came into contact with the illuminated plates, became charged and acted as carriers for the electricity. See B. R. Wheaton, ‘Philipp Lenard and the photoelectric effect: 1889–1911’, Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences, 9 (1978), 299–322; S. Galdabini, G. Giuliani and N. Robotti, ‘Photoelectricity within classical Physics: from the photocurrents of E. Becquerel to the first measurement of the electron charge’, Proceedings of the European Physical Society (Como, 1992) (in press).
  • Wilson , C.T.R. 1895 . On the production of a cloud by the action of ultra-violet light on moist air . Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society , 9 October : 392 – 393 . 28 16 May 1898 E. Rutherford, ‘The discharge of electrification by ultra-violet light’, Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, 9 (28 October 1895–16 May 1898), 401–16.
  • Thomson . 1899 . Phil. Mag. , 48 : 557 – 557 .
  • Thomson . 1899 . Phil. Mag. , 48 : 563 – 563 .
  • In 1899, Lenard Lenard P. Erzeugung von Kathodenstrahlen durch ultraviolettes Licht Annalen der Physik 1900 2 359 375 provided an interpretation of the photoelectric effect in terms of corpuscles, which Lenard called ‘quantums’. He measured the charge-to-mass ratio, and obtained a value similar to that proposed by Thomson. Unlike Thomson, however, Lenard did not manage to measure the charge. This was possible for Thomson as he had already perfected (as we have seen) an ad hoc measurement technique precisely to measure charge. The e/m obtained by Lenard was reported by Thomson in Philosophical Magazine (footnote 32) as a confirmation of his own result.
  • Thomson . 1899 . Phil. Mag. , 48 : 554 – 554 .
  • Elster , J. and Geitel , H. 1882 . Ueber die Electricitat der Flamme . Annalen der Physik , 16 : 193 – 222 . idem, “Ueber Electricitatserregung beim Contact von Gasen und gluhenden Korpern’, Annalen der Physik, 19 (1883), 588–624; idem, ‘Ueber die Electricitat der Flamme’, Annalen der Physik, 22 (1884), 123–8.
  • Elster , J. and Geitel , H. 1889 . Einige Demonstrationsversuche zum Nachweis einseitiger Electricitatsbewegung in verdunnten Gasen bei Anwendung gluhender Electroden . Annalen der Physik , 38 : 27 – 39 .
  • Thomson . 1899 . Phil. Mag. , 48 : 548 – 548 .
  • Thomson . 1899 . Phil Mag. , 48 : 565 – 565 .
  • Perin , J. 1901 . Les Hypothèses moléculaires . Revue Scientific , 15 in Ouvres Scientifiques de Jean Perrin (Paris, 1950), 165.
  • See, also Thomson J.J. Indications relatives a la constitution de la matière fournies par les recherches sur le passage de l'électricité a travers les gaz Rapports présentés au Congrès International de Physique Paris 1990 III 138 151
  • Thomson . 1899 . Phil. Mag. Vol. 48 , 565 – 565 .
  • Weinberg , S. 1983 . The Discovery of Subatomic Particles New York and San Francisco
  • Wilson , H.A. 1903 . A Determination of the Charge on the Ions Produced in Air by Roentgen Rays . Philosophical Magazine , 5 : 429 – 441 .
  • Thomson , J.J. 1903 . On the charge of electricity carried by a gaseous ion . Philosophical Magazine , 5 : 346 – 355 .
  • Thomson . 1903 . Conduction of Electricity through Gases Cambridge
  • Thomson , J.J. 1921 . “ La structure de la matière ” . In Rapports et discussions de Conseil de physique tenue à Bruxelles du 27 au 31 octobre 1913 1 – 21 . Paris

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