- See Early Correspondence of the Lowell Observatory, 1894–1916 , Microfilm edition The Lowell Observatory Flagstaff, AZ 1973
- Hoyt . Lowell and Mars , xv 26 – 26 .
- Among the relatively small number of scholarly books which Hoyt might have drawn on while he was writing his book are the following Jones B.Z. Boyd L.G. The Harvard College Observatory: The First Four Directorships, 1839–1919 Cambridge, MA 1971 and B. Z. Jones, Lighthouse of the Skies: The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory: Background and History, 1846–1955 (Washington, DC, 1975); Helen Wright, Explorer of the Universe: A Biography of George Ellery Hale (New York, 1966); Richard Berendzen, ‘Origins of the American Astronomical Society’, Physics Today, 27 (1974), 32–39; Deborah Jean Warner, Alvan Clark and Sons: Artists in Optics (Washington, DC, 1968); Norriss S. Hetherington, ‘Lowell's Theory of Life on Mars’, Astronomical Society of the Pacific, Leaflet No. 501 (1971); M. Grosser, ‘The Search for a Planet Beyond Neptune’, Isis, 55 (1964), 163–83; and Marc Rothenberg, ‘The Education and Intellectual Background of American Astronomers’, PhD Dissertation, Bryn Mawr College, 1974. This list and other bibliographical items have been compiled in part from the following: an excellent literature review by Marc Rothenberg: ‘History of Astronomy’, in Osiris, 2nd Series (1985), I, 117–31. In addition, two bibliographies have been quite helpful: David H. DeVorkin, ed., The History of Modern Astronomy and Astrophysics; A Selected, Anotated Bibliography (New York, 1982); and Marc Rothenberg, ed., The History of Science and Technology in the United States: A Critical and Selective Bibliography, I, II (New York, 1982, 1993). Also extremely helpful are relevant articles in John Lankford, ed., History of Astronomy: An Encyclopedia (New York and London, 1997).
- Hoyt . 1980 . Planets X and Pluto Tucson, AZ Lowell came by his interest in the discovery of new planets early in his career as a student of Benjamin Peirce who was at the centre of the controversy over Neptune's orbit. On this issue, see M. Grosser, The Discovery of Neptune (Cambridge, MA, 1962) and Robert Smith, ‘The Cambridge Network in Action: The Discovery of Neptune’, Isis, 80 (1989), 395–422.
- Brush . 1996 . A History of Modern Planetary Physics: Fruitful Encounters: The Origin of the Solar System and of the Moon from Chamberlin to Apollo Vol. II , Cambridge An earlier version of Brush's account was published as ‘A Geologist among Astronomers: The Rise and Fall of the Chamberlin-Moulton Cosmogony’, Parts 1 and 2, Journal for the History of Astronomy, 9 (1978), 1–41, 77–104; see also Brush, ‘The Nebular Hypothesis and the Evolutionary Worldview’, History of Science, 25 (1987), 245–78, and Ronald L. Numbers, Creation by Natural Law: Laplace's Nebular Hypothesis in American Thought (Seattle and London, 1977). On the nebular and planetesimal hypotheses, see also Stanley Jaki, Planets and Planetarians; A History of Theories of the Origin of Planetary Systems (New York, 1978). Of course, Lowell himself claimed to be the first planetologist. On this issue, see Strauss, ‘“Fireflies Flashing in Unison”: Percival Lowell, Edward Morse, and the Birth of Planetology’, Journal for the History of Astronomy, 24 (1993), 157–69. On the rise of solar system astronomy as an interdisciplinary field, see Ronald Doel, Solar System Astronomy in America: Communities, Patronage, and Interdisciplinary Research, 1920–1960 (Cambridge, 1996) and, for the more recent period, J. N. Tatarewicz, Space Technology and Planetary Astronomy (Bloomington, IN, 1990).
- Crowe . 1986 . The Extraterrestrial Life Debate, 1750–1900: The Idea of a Plurality of Worlds from Kant to Lowell Cambridge Dick, The Biological Universe: The Twentieth-Century Extraterrestrial Life Debate and the Limits of Science (New York, 1996). A somewhat briefer treatment of Lowell's impact in the debate on extraterrestrial life, which emphasizes science fiction more than science but links the two, is Karl S. Guthke, The Last Frontier: Imagining Other Worlds, from the Copernician Revolution to Modern Science Fiction, translated by Helen Atkins, (Ithaca, NY, 1990 [1983]).
- Sheehan . 1988 . Planets and Perception: Telescopic Views and Interpretations, 1609–1909 Tucson, AZ Lankford, ‘Amateurs versus Professionals: The Controversy over Telescope Size in Late Victorian Science’, Isis, 72 (1981), 11–28. Problems of perception are also the subject of Robert W. Smith and Richard Baum, ‘William Lassell and the Ring of Neptune: A Case Study in Instrumental Failure’, Journal for the History of Astronomy, 15 (1984), 1–17.
- The following biographical studies are particularly useful for this period Sheehan William The Immortal Fire Within: The Life and Work of Edward Emerson Barnard Cambridge 1995 Donald E. Osterbrock, James E. Keeler: Pioneer American Astrophysicist and the Early Development of American Astrophysics (Cambridge, 1984); A. E. Moyer, A Scientist's Voice in American Culture: Simon Newcomb and the Rhetoric of Scientific Method (Berkeley, 1992); George Webb, Tree Rings and Telescopes: The Scientific Career of A. E. Douglass (Tucson, 1983). The Pickerings have been the subjects of the following articles: Howard Plotkin, ‘Edward C. Pickering, the Draper Memorial, and the Beginnings of Astrophysics in America’, Annals of Science, 35 (1978), 365–77; Plotkin, ‘Edward C. Pickering’, Journal for the History of Astronomy, 21 (1990), 47–58; and Plotkin, ‘Edward C. Pickering and the Endowment of Scientific Research in America, 1877–1918’, Isis, 69 (1978), 44–57. On W. H. Pickering, see Strauss, ‘Percival Lowell, W. H. Pickering and the Founding of the Lowell Observatory’, Annals of Science, 51 (1994), 37–58; and Plotkin, ‘William H. Pickering in Jamaica; The Founding of Woodlawn and Studies of Mars’, Journal for the History of Astronomy, 24 (1993), 101–22; and Plotkin, ‘Harvard College Observatory's Boyden Station in Peru: Origin and Formative Years, 1879–1898’, in Mundialization de la ciencia y cultura nacional. Actas del Congreso Internacional “Ciencia, descubrimiento y mundo colonial”, edited by A. Lafuente, A. Elena, and M. L. Ortega (Madrid: Doce Calles, 1993), 689–705. On V. M. Slipher, see Robert Smith's chapter entitled ‘Red Shifts and Gold Medals’, in The Explorers of Mars Hill: A Centennial History of Lowell Observatory, 1894–1994 (West Kennebunk, ME: Phoenix Publishing, 1994), 43–65, edited and partly written by the current trustee of the Observatory, William Lowell Putnam. Also helpful in this volume is the account of a dispute over Lowell's legacy between his widow and the trustee, which brought the Observatory to the verge of financial collapse in the 1920s.
- Osterbrock , Donald E. , Gustafson , J.R. and Unruh , N.S.S. 1988 . Eye on the Sky: Lick Observatory's First Century Berkeley, CA Osterbrock, Yerkes Observatory, 1892–1950: The Birth, Near Death, and Resurrection of a Scientific Research Institution (Chicago, 1997). See also, D. Hoffleit, Astronomy at Yale, 1701–1968. Memoirs of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences (New Haven, CT, 1992). On ‘big science’, see Robert Smith, ‘Large-Scale Scientific Enterprise’, in Stanley I. Kutler et al., eds, Encyclopedia of the United States in the Twentieth Century, II (New York, 1996), 739–65.
- Lankford , John . 1986 . Amateurs versus Professionals Cambridge see also Lankford, ‘The Impact of Astronomical Photography to 1920’, A. Van Helden, ‘Telescope Building, 1850–1900’, and ‘Telescope Building, 1900–1950’, in Astrophysics and Twentieth-Century Astronomy to 1950, Part A, edited by O. Gingerich; The General History of Astronomy, edited by M. Hoskin, vol. 4 (Cambridge, 1984), 16–39, 40–58, 134–52; Osterbrock, Pauper and Prince: Ritchey, Hale and Big American Telescopes (Tucson, AZ, 1993); Osterbrock, ‘Getting the Picture: Wide-Field Astronomical Photography from Barnard to the Achromatic Schmidt, 1888–1992’, Journal for the History of Astronomy, 25 (1994), 1–14; Smith, ‘Red Shifts and Gold Medals’ (note 7).
- On the impact of astrophysics, see Meadows A.J. ‘The Origins of Astrophysics’ and ‘The New Astronomy’ Astrophysics and Twentieth-Century Astronomy to 1950 Gingerich 3 15 in 59–72 (note 9); see also Plotkin, ‘Henry Draper, Edward C. Pickering, and the Birth of American Astrophysics’ (note 7) and Lankford, ‘Amateurs and Astrophysics: A Neglected Aspect in the Development of a Scientific Specialty’, Social Studies of Science, 11 (1981), 275–330. On solar system astronomy, see note 4. On galaxy research, see Smith, The Expanding Universe: Astronomy's ‘Great Debate’, 1900–1931 (Cambridge, 1982).
- Lankford . 1997 . American Astronomy: Community, Careers, and Power, 1859–1940 Chicago Lankford's work clearly builds on Rothenberg's 1974 study of the educational background of American astronomers. On tensions between amateurs and professionals, see Norriss Hetherington, ‘Amateur versus Professional: The British Astronomical Association and the Controversy over Canals on Mars’, Journal of the British Astronomical Association, 86 (1976), 303–8 and chapters 5 and 8, ‘Planetary Fantasies, Mars’, 49–64 and ‘The Purported Rotation of Spiral Nebulae’, 83–109, in Hetherington, Science and Objectivity: Episodes in the History of Astronomy (Ames, IA, 1988); see also the debate between Hetherington, ‘Percival Lowell: Professional Scientist or Interloper?’ and William C. Heffernan, ‘Percival Lowell and the Debate over Extraterrestrial Life’ in Journal of the History of Ideas, 42 (1981), 159–61, 527–30. Also relevant are John Lankford, ‘Amateur versus Professional: The Transatlantic Debate over the Measurement of Jovian Longitude’, Journal for the British Astronomical Association, 86 (1979), 574–82; Marc Rothenberg, ‘Organization and Control: Professionals and Amateurs in American Astronomy, 1899–1918’, Social Studies of Science, 11 (1981), 305–25. (See also notes 9 and 10 for citations of Lankford articles relevant to amateurs.)
- On gender issues, see Rossiter Margaret Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940 Baltimore 1982 P. E. Mack, ‘Straying from Their Orbits: Women in Astronomy in America’ in Women of Science. edited by G. Kass-Simon and P. Farnes (Bloomington, IN, 1990), 72–116; and J. Lankford and R. L. Slavings, ‘Gender and Science: Women in American Astronomy, 1859–1940’, Physics Today, 43 (1990), 58–65. On science in the Southwest, see George E. Webb, ‘Scientists in the American Southwest: The Birth of a Community, 1906–1938’, The Historian, 50 (1988), 173–95; and Webb, ‘Leading Women Scientists in the American Southwest: A Demographic Portrait, 1900–1950’, New Mexico Historical Review, 68 (1993), 41–61.
Annals of Science
Volume 55, 1998 - Issue 1