An analysis of the determinants of anaemia in pregnant women in rural Malawi—a basis for action

REFERENCES

• Anon. (1987). Malawi Population and Housing Census 1987. Summary of Final Results, Vol. 1. Zomba, Malawi: National Statistical Office.
   Google Scholar
• Anon. (1993). Situation Analysis of Poverty in Malawi. Lilongwe: United Nations in Malawi/Government of Malawi.
   Google Scholar
• Anon. (1995). Meteorological Data, 1993–1994. Nchalo: Sugar Co-operation of Malawi.
   Google Scholar
• Baker, S. J. & DeMaeyer, E. M. (1979). Nutritional anemia: its understanding and control with special reference to the work of the World Health Organization. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 32, 368–117.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brabin, B. J. (1983). An analysis of malaria in pregnancy in Africa. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 61, 1005–1016.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brabin, L. & Brabin, B. J. (1992). The cost of successful adolescent growth and development in girls in relation to iron and vitamin A status. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 55, 955–958.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Catignani, G. L. & Bleri, J. G. (1983). Simultaneous determinants of retinol and α-tocopherol in serum or plasma by liquid chromatography. Clinical Chemistry, 29, 709–712
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeMaeyer, E. M. & Kahn, S. G. (1985). Measurements of Iron Status. Washington, DC: Nutrition Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Edwards, J. H. (1961). The recognition and estimation of cyclic trends. Annals of Human Genetics, 25, 83–87
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fazzio-Tirozzo, G., Brabin, L., Brabin, B., Ajbaje, O., Harper, G. & Broadhead, R. (1998). A community based study of vitamin A and vitamin E status of adolescent girls living in the Shire valley, southern Malawi. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 52, 637–642.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fleming, A. F., Ghatoura, G. B. S., Harrison, K. A., Briggs, N. D. & Dunn, D. T. (1986). The prevention of anaemia in pregnancy in primigravidae in the guinea savanna of Nigeria. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 80, 211–233.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Isaii, H. S., Fleming, A. F., Ujaii, I. A. O. & Ekwempu, C. C. (1985). Anaemia and iron status of pregnant and non-pregnant women in the guinea savanna of Nigeria. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 79, 485–493.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jackson, D. J., Klee, E. B., Green, S. D. R., Mokili, J. L. K., Elton, R. A. & Cutting, W. A. M. (1991). Severe anaemia in pregnancy: a problem of primigravidae in rural Zaire. Transactions of the Royal Society Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 85, 829–832.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• James, W. P. T., Ferro-Luzzi, A. & Waterlow, J. C. (1988). A definition of chronic energy deficiency in adults. Report of a working party of the International Dietary Energy Consultative Group. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 42, 969–981.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klebanoff, M. A., Shiono, P. H, Selby, J. V., Trachtenberg, A. I. & Graubard, B. I. (1991). Anemia and spontaneous preterm birth. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 164, 59–63.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Last, J. M. (1988). A Dictionary of Epidemiology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Letsky, E. (1991). The haematological system. In Clinical Physiology in Obstetrics, eds Hytten, F. E. & Chamberlain, G. pp. 39–80. Oxford: Blackwell Science.
   Google Scholar
• Luhanga, H. M. & Venemans, E. F. (Eds) (1994). Chikwawa District Annual Report 1994. Chikwawa, Malawi: Chikwawa District Hospital.
   Google Scholar
• Magee, H. E. & Milligan, E. H. M. (1951). Haemoglobin levels before and after labour. British Medical Journal, ii, 1307–1310.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mejía, L. A. (1992). Role of vitamin A in iron deficiency anaemia. In Nutritional Anaemias, Nestlé Nutrition Workshop Series, Vol. 30, eds Fomon, S. J. & Zlotkin, S. pp. 93–104. New York: Raven Press.
   Google Scholar
• Möller, B., Gebre-Medhin, M. & Lindmark, G. (1989). Maternal weight, weight gain and birthweight at term in the rural Tanzanian village of Ilula. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 96, 158–166.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sarin, A. R. (1995). Severe anemia of pregnancy, recent experience. International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics, 50 (Suppl. 2), 45–49.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scholl, T. O. & Hediger, M. L. (1994). Anemia and iron-deficiency anemia: compilation of data on pregnancy outcome. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 59 (Suppl.), 492S–501S.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stolzfus, R. J. (1997). Rethinking anaemia surveillance. Lancet, i, 1764–1766
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Eijk, H. G., Kroos, M. J., Hoogendoorn, G. A. & Wallenburg, H. C. S. (1978). Serum ferritin and iron stores during pregnancy. Clinica Chimica Acta, 83, 81–91.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verhoeff, F. H., Brabin, B. J. & Broadhead, R. L. (1996). Chronic energy deficiency and protracted linear growth in adolescent girls in rural Malawi. Malaysian Journal of Child Health, 8 (Suppl. 1), 185.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization (1982). Control of Vitamin A Deficiency and Xerophthalmia. Technical Report Series No. 672. Geneva: WHO.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization (1990). Iron supplementation during pregnancy: why aren't women complying? Document WHO/MCH/90.5. Geneva: WHO.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization (1992a). The prevalence of anaemia in women: a tabulation of available information. Document WHO/MCH/MSM/92.2. Geneva: WHO.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization (1992b). Administrative Committee on Co-ordination/Sub-committee on Nutrition. (ACC/SCN). In Second Report on the World Nutrition Situation, Global and Regional Results, Vol. 1, p. 54. Geneva: WHO.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization (1993). Prevention and management of severe anaemia in pregnancy. Document WHO/FHE/MSM/93.5. Geneva: WHO.
   Google Scholar