Diagnosis of childhood pneumonia in the tropics

REFERENCES

• Adegbola, R. A., Falade, A. G., Sam, B. E., Aidoo, M., Baldeh, I., Hazlet, D., Whittle, H., Greenwood, B. M. & Mulholland, E. K. (1994). The etiology of pneumonia in malnourished and well-nourished Gambian children. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 13, 975–982.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anon. (1988). Pneumonia in childhood. Lancet, i, 741–743.
   Google Scholar
• Anon. (1999). Bacterial etiology of serious infections in young infants in developing countries: results of a multicenter study. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 18, S17–S22.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Banya, W. A. S., O'Dempsey, T. J. D., McArdle, T., Lloyd-Evans, N & Greenwood, B. M. (1996). Predictors for a positive blood culture in African children with pneumonia. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 15, 292–297.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berman, S. & McIntosh, K. (1985). Selective primary health care: strategies for control of disease in the developing world. XX1 Acute respiratory infections. Reviews of Infectious Diseases, 7, 674–691.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Berman, S., Duenas, A., Bedoya, A., Constain, V., Leon, S., Borero, I. & Murphy, J. (1983). Acute lower respiratory tract illnesses in Cali, Columbia: a two year ambulatory study. Pediatrics, 71, 210–218.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• English, M., Punt, J., Mwangi, I., McHugh, K. & Marsh, K. (1996). Clinical overlap between malaria and severe pneumonia in Africa children in hospital. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 90, 658–662.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Falade, A. G., Tschappeler, H., Greenwood, B. M. & Mulholland, E. K. (1995). Use of simple clinical signs to predict pneumonia in young Gambian children: the influence of malnutrition. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 73, 299–304.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Falade, A. G., Mulholland, E. K., Adegbola, R. A. & Greenwood, B. M. (1997). Bacterial isolates from blood and lung aspirate cultures in Gambian children with lobar pneumonia. Annals of Tropical Paediatrics, 17, 315–319.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forgie, I. M., O'Neill, K. P., Lloyd-Evans, N., Leinonen, M., Campbell, H., Whittle, H. C. & Greenwood, B. M. (1991). Etiology of acute respiratory tract infections in Gambian children. I. Acute lower respiratory tract infections in infants presenting at the hospital. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 10, 33–41.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hassan-King, M., Adegbola, R., Baldeh, I., Omosigho, C., Usen, S. O., Oparaugo, A. & Greenwood, B. M. (1996). Detection of Haemophilus influenzae and Streptococcus pnuemoniae DNA in blood culture by a simple PCR assay. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 34, 2030–2032.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamiya, Y., Mtitimila, E., Graham, S. M., Broadhead, R. L., Brabin, B. & Hart, C. A. (1997). Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in Malawian children. Annals of Tropical Paediatrics, 2, 121–126.
   Google Scholar
• Korppi, M. & Leinonen, M. (1998). Pneumococcal immune complexes in the diagnosis of lower respiratory infections in children. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 17, 992–995.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korppi, M., Koskela, M., Jalonen, E. & Leinonen, M. (1992). Serologically indicated pneumococcal respiratory infection in children. Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases, 24, 437–443.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lafong, A. C. & Crothers, E. (1988). Simple latex agglutination method for typing pneumococci. Journal of Clinical Pathology, 41, 230–231.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lehmann, D., Sanders, R. C., Marjen, B., Rongap, A., Tschappeler, H., Lamont, A. C., Hendry, G. M. A., Wai'in, P., Saleu, G., Namuigi, P., Kakazo, M., Lupiwa, S., Lewis, D. J. & Alpers, M. P. (1999). High rates of Chlamydia trachomatis infections in young Papua New Guinean infants. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 18, S62–S69
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacFarlane, J. T., Finch, R. G., Ward, M. J. & Macrae, A. D. (1982). Hospital study of adult community-acquired pneumonia. Lancet, ii, 255–258.
   Google Scholar
• Malbye, H. & Dale, K. (1992). Interobserver variability in the radiographic diagnosis of adult out-patient pneumonia. Acta Radiologica, 33, 79–81
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Margolis, P. & Gadomski, A. (1998). Does this infant have pneumonia? Journal of the American Medical Association, 279, 308–313.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mimica, I., Donoso, E., Howard, J. E. & Ledermann, G. W. (1971). Lung puncture in the etiological diagnosis of pneumonia: a study of 543 infants and children. American Journal of Diseases of Children, 122, 278–282.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mullis, K. B. (1990). The unusual origin of the polymerase chain reaction. Scientific American, 262, 36–43.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nohynek, H. (1996). Acute lower respiratory tract infection in children. Academic Dissertation, Helsinki University, Helsinki, Finland.
   Google Scholar
• Nohynek, H., Eskola, J., Kleemola, M., Jalonen, E., Saikku, P. & Leinonen, M. (1995). Bacterial antibody assays in the diagnosis of acute lower respiratory tract infection in children. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 14, 478–484.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Dempsey, T. J. D., McArdle, T. F., Lloyd-Evans, N., Baldeh, I., Laurence, B. E., Secka, O. & Greenwood, B. M. (1994). Importance of enteric bacteria as a cause of pneumonia, meningitis and septicaemia among children in a rural community in The Gambia, West Africa. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 13, 122–128.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Neill, K. P., Lloyd-Evans, N., Campbell, H., Forgie, I. M., Sabally, S. & Greenwood, B. M. (1989). Latex agglutination test for diagnosing pneumococcal pneumonia in children in developing countries. British Medical Journal, ii, 1061–1064.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perkins, B. A., Zucker, J. R., Otieno, J., Jafari, H. S., Paxton, L., Redd, S. C., Nahlen, B. L., Schwartz, B., Oloo, A. J., Olango, C., Gove, S. & Campbell, C. C. (1997). Evaluation of an algorithm for integrated management of childhood illness in an area of Kenya with high malaria transmission. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 75 (Suppl.1), 33–42.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruiz-Gonzalez, A., Falguera, M., Nogues, A. & Rubio-Caballero, M. (1999). Is Streptococcus pneumoniae the leading cause of pneumonia of unknown etiology? A microbiologic study of lung aspirates in consecutive patients with community-acquired pneumonia. American Journal of Medicine, 106, 385–390.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott, J. A. G., Hannington, A., Marsh, K. & Hall, A. J. (1999). Diagnosis of pneumococcal pneumonia in epidemiological studies: evaluation in Kenyan adults of a serotype-specific urine latex agglutination assay. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 28, 764–769.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shann, F. & Steinhoff, M. C. (1999). Vaccines for children in rich and poor countries. Lancet, ii (Suppl. 2), SII7–SII11.
   Google Scholar
• Shann, F., Gratten, M., Germer, S., Linnemann, V., Hazlet, D. & Payne, R. (1984). Aetiology of pneumonia in children in Goroka Hospital, Papua New Guinea. Lancet, ii, 537–541.
   Google Scholar
• Snider Jr, D. E., Rieder, H. L., Combs, D., Bloch, A. B., Hayden, C. H. & Smith, M. H. (1988). Tuberculosis in children. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 7, 271–278.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stagno, S., Brasfield, D. M., Brown, M. B., Cassel, G. H., Pifer, L. L., Whitley, R. J. & Tiller, R. E. (1981). Infant pneumonitis associated with cytomegalovirus, Chlamydia, Pneumocystis and Ureaplasma: prospective study. Pediatrics, 68, 322–329.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swingler, G. H., Hussey, G. D. & Zwarenstein, M. (1998). Randomised controlled trial of clinical outcome after chest radiograph in ambulatory acute lower-respiratory infection in children. Lancet, i, 404–408.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wall, R. A., Corrah, P. T., Mabey, D. C. W. & Greenwood, B. M. (1986). The etiology of lobar pneumonia in the Gambia. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 64, 553–558.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walsh, J. A. & Warren, K. S. (1979). Selective primary health care, an interim strategy for disease control in developing countries. New England Journal of Medicine, 301, 967–974.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wasas, A. D., Huebner, R. E., de Blanche, M. & Klugman, K. P. (1998). Long-term survival of Streptococcus pneumoniae at room temperature on Dorset egg medium. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 36, 1139–1140.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Washington, J. A. & Ilstrup, D. M. (1986). Blood cultures: issues and controversies. Reviews of Infectious Diseases, 8, 792–802.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Welch, D. F., Scribner, R. K. & Hensel, D. (1985). Evaluation of a lysis direct plating method for pediatric blood cultures. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 21, 955–958.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization (1990). Acute Respiratory Infections in Children: Case Management in Small Hospitals in Developing Countries. A Manual for Doctors and Other Senior Health Workers. Document WHO/ARI/90.5. Geneva: Programme for the Control of Acute Respiratory Infections, WHO.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization (1992). Programme for the Control of Acute Respiratory Infections: Fifth Programme Report. Document WHO/ARI/92.22. Geneva: WHO.
   Google Scholar