60
Views
52
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Reviews

Modulation of host immunity by haematophagous arthropods

&
Pages 755-771 | Received 20 Sep 2001, Accepted 20 Sep 2001, Published online: 15 Nov 2016

REFERENCES

  • Adams, M. D., Kelley, J. M., Gocayne, J. D., Dubnick, M., Polymeropoulos, M. H., Xiao, H., Merril, C. R., Wu, A., Olde, B., Morens, D. M., Kerlavage, A. R., McConnell, D. J. & Venter, J. C. (1991). Complementary DNA sequencing: expressed sequence tags and human genome project. Science, 252, 1651–1656.
  • Alexander, J. O'D. (1986). The physiology of itch. Parasitology Today, 2, 345–351.
  • Allen, J. R. (1973). Tick resistance: basophils in skin reactions of resistant guinea pigs. International Journal for Parasitology, 3, 195–200.
  • Allen, J. R. (1989). Immunology of interactions between ticks and laboratory animals. Experimental and Applied Acarology, 7, 5–13.
  • Allen, J. R., Doube, B. M. & Kemp, D. H. (1977). Histology of bovine skin reactions to Ixodes holocyclus Neumann. Canadian Journal of Comparative Medicine, 41, 26–35.
  • Balashov, Y. S. (1972). Bloodsucking ticks (Ixodidae)—vectors of disease of man and animals. Miscellaneous Publications of the Entomological Society of America, 8, 161–376.
  • Belkaid, Y., Kamhawi, S., Modi, G., Valenzuela, J., Noben-Trauth, N., Rowton, E., Ribeiro, J. & Sacks, D. L. (1998). Development of a natural model of cutaneous leishmaniasis: powerful effects of vector saliva and saliva preexposure on the long-term outcome of Leishmania major infection in the mouse ear dermis. Journal of Experimental Medicine, 188, 1941–1953.
  • Bergman, D. K., Ramachandra, R. N. & Wikel, S. K. (1995). Dermacentor andersoni: salivary gland proteins suppressing T-lymphocyte responses to concanavalin A in vitro. Experimental Parasitology, 81, 262–271.
  • Bergman, D. K., Ramachandra, R. N. & Wikel, S. K. (1998). Characterization of an immunosuppressant protein from Dermacentor andersoni (Acari: Ixodidae) salivary glands. Journal of Medical Entomology, 35, 505–509.
  • Bergman, D. K., Palmer, M. J., Caimano, M. J., Radolf, J. D. & Wikel, S. K. (2000). Isolation and cloning of a secreted immunosuppressant protein from Dermacentor andersoni salivary gland. Journal of Parasitology, 86, 516–525.
  • Biron, C. A., Nguyen, K. B., Pien, G. C., Cousens, L. P. & Salazar-Mather, T. P. (1999). Natural killer cells in antiviral defense: function and regulation by innate cytokines. Annual Review of Immunology, 17, 189–220.
  • Bissonette, E. Y., Rossignol, P. A. & Befus, A. D. (1993). Extracts of mosquito salivary gland inhibit tumor necrosis factor alpha. Parasite Immunology, 15, 27–33.
  • Borsky, I., Hermanek, J., Uhlir, J. & Dusbabek, F. (1994). Humoral and cellular immune response of BALB/c mice to repeated infestations with Ixodes ricinus nymphs. International Journal for Parasitology, 24, 127–132.
  • Bozza, M., Soares, M. B. P., Bozza, P. T., Satoskar, A. R., Diacovo, T. G., Brombacher, F., Titus, R. G., Shoemaker, C. B. & David, J. R. (1998). The PACAP-type I receptor agonist maxadilan from sand fly saliva protects mice against lethal endotoxemia by a mechanism partially dependent on IL-10. European Journal of Immunology, 28, 3120–3127.
  • Brodsky, F. M. (1999). Stealth, sabotage and exploitation. Immunological Reviews, 168, 5–11.
  • Brogdon, W. G. & McAllister, J. C. (1998). Insecticide resistance and vector control. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 4, 605–613.
  • Brossard, M. & Wikel, S. K. (1997). Immunology of interactions between ticks and hosts. Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 11, 270–276.
  • Champagne, D. E. & Valenzuela, J. G. (1996). Pharmacology of haemathophagous arthropod saliva. In The Immunology of Host-ectoparasitic Arthropod Relationships, ed. Wikel, S. K. pp. 85–106. Wallingford, U.K.: CAB International.
  • Chinery, W. A. & Ayitey-Smith, E. (1977). Histamine blocking agent in the salivary gland homogenate of the tick, Rhipicephalus sanguineus sanguineus. Nature, 265, 366–367.
  • Christi, M., Rutti, B. & Brossard, M. (1998). Susceptibility of BALB/c mice to nymphs and larvae of Ixodes ricinus after modulation of IgE production with anti-interleukin-4 or anti-interferon-γ monoclonal antibodies. Parasitology Research, 84, 388–393.
  • Christi, M., Rutti, B. & Brossard, M. (2000). Cytokines (IL-4 and IFN-γ) and antibodies (IgE and IgG2a) produced in mice infested with Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto via nymphs of Ixodes ricinus ticks or syringe inoculations. Parasitology Research, 86, 491–496.
  • Clark, W. G. (1979). Kinins and the peripheral and central nervous systems. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology, 25, 311–356.
  • Crampton, A. L., Miller, C., Baxter, G. D. & Barker, S. C. (1998). Expressed sequence tags and new genes from the cattle tick, Boophilus microplus. Experimental and Applied Acarology, 22, 177–186.
  • Cross, M. L., Cupp, M. S., Cupp, E. W., Galloway, A. L. & Enriquez, F. J. (1993a). Modulation of murine immunological responses by salivary gland extract of Simulium vittatum (Diptera: Simuliidae). Journal of Medical Entomology, 30, 928–935.
  • Cross, M. L., Cupp, M. S., Cupp, E. W., Ramberg, F. B. & Enriquez, F. J. (1993b). Antibody responses of BALB/c mice to salivary antigens of hematophagous black flies (Diptera: Simuliidae). Journal of Medical Entomology, 30, 725–734.
  • Cross, M. L., Cupp, E. W. & Enriquez, F. J. (1994a). Modulation of murine cellular immune responses and cytokines by salivary gland extract of the black fly Simulium vittatum. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 45, 119–124.
  • Cross, M. L., Cupp, E. W. & Enriquez, F. J. (1994b). Differential modulation of murine cellular immune responses by salivary gland extracts of Aedes aegypti. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 51, 690–696.
  • Crosskey, R. W. (1995). Blackflies (Simuliidae). In Medical Insects and Arachnids, eds Lane, R. P. & Crosskey, R. W. pp. 241–287. London: Chapman & Hall.
  • Das, M., Harvey, I., Chu, L. L., Sinha, M. & Pelletier, J. (2001). Full-length cDNAs: more than just reaching the ends. Physiological Genomics, 6, 57–80.
  • Daszak, P., Cunningham, A. A. & Hyatt, A. D. (2000). Emerging infectious diseases of wildlife—threats to biodiversity and human health. Science, 287, 443–449.
  • Dimopoulos, G., Casavant, T. L., Chang, S., Scheetz, T., Roberts, C., Donohue, M., Schultz, J., Benes, V., Bork, P., Ansorge, W., Soares, M. B. & Kafatos, F. C. (2000). Anopheles gambiae pilot gene discovery project: identification of mosquito innate immunity genes from expressed sequence tags generated from immune-competent cell lines. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 97, 6619–6624.
  • Dusbabek, F., Borsky, I., Jelinek, F. & Uhlir, J. (1995). Immunosuppression and feeding success of Ixodes ricinus nymphs on BALB/c mice. Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 9, 133–140.
  • Edwards, J. F., Higgs, S. & Beaty, B. J. (1998). Mosquito feeding-induced enhancement of Cache Valley virus (Bunyaviridae) infection in mice. Journal of Medical Entomology, 35, 261–265.
  • Ferreira, B. R. & Silva, J. S. (1998). Saliva of Rhipicephalus sanguineus ticks impairs T cell proliferation and IFN-γ-induced macrophage microbicidal activity. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology, 64, 279–293.
  • Ferreira, B. R. & Silva, J. S. (1999). Successive tick infestations selectively promote a T-helper 2 cytokine profile in mice. Immunology, 96, 434–439.
  • Fivaz, B. H. (1989). Immune suppression induced by the brown ear tick, Rhipicephalus appendiculatus Neumann, 1901. Journal of Parasitology, 75, 946–952.
  • Fuchsberger, N., Kita, M., Hajnicka, V., Imanishi, J., Labuda, M. & Nuttall, P. A. (1995). Ixodid tick salivary gland extracts inhibit production of lipopolysaccharide-induced mRNA of several different human cytokines. Experimental and Applied Acarology, 19, 671–676.
  • Ganapamo, F., Rutti, B. & Brossard, M. (1995). In vitro production of interleukin-4 and interferon-γ by lymph node cells from BALB/c mice infested with nymphal Ixodes ricinus ticks. Immunology, 85, 120–124.
  • Ganapamo, F., Rutti, B. & Brossard, M. (1996a). Immunosuppression and cytokine production in mice infested with Ixodes ricinus ticks: a possible role of laminin and interleukin-10 on the in vitro responsiveness of lymphocytes to mitogens. Immunology, 87, 259–263.
  • Ganapamo, F., Rutti, B. & Brossard, M. (1996b). Cytokine production by lymph node cells from mice infested with Ixodes ricinus ticks and the effect of tick salivary gland extracts on IL-2 production. Scandinavian Journal of Immunology, 44, 388–393.
  • Gillespie, R. D., Mbow, M. L. & Titus, R. G. (2000). The immunomodulatory factors of blood feeding arthropod saliva. Parasite Immunology, 22, 319–331.
  • Gillespie, R. D., Dolan, M. C., Piesman, J. & Titus, R. G. (2001). Identification of an IL-2 binding protein in the saliva of the Lyme disease vector tick, Ixodes scapularis. Journal of Immunology, 166, 4319–4327.
  • Gratz, N. G. (1999). Emerging and resurging vector-borne diseases. Annual Review of Entomology, 44, 51–75.
  • Gubler, D. J. (1998). Resurgent vector-borne diseases as a global health problem. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 4, 442–450.
  • Gubler, D. J. (2000). Insects in disease transmission. In Hunter's Tropical Medicine and Emerging Infectious Diseases, 8th Edn, ed. Strickland, G. T. pp. 1005–1019. Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders.
  • Gwakisa, P., Yoshihara, K., To, T. L., Gotoh, H., Amano, F. & Momotani, E. (2001). Salivary gland extract of Rhipicephalus appendiculatus ticks inhibits in vitro transcription and secretion of cytokines and production of nitric oxide by LPS-stimulated JA-4 cells. Veterinary Parasitology, 99, 53–61.
  • Hajnicka, V., Kocakova, P., Slovak, M., Labuda, M., Fuchsberger, N. & Nuttall, P. A. (2000). Inhibition of the antiviral action of interferon by tick salivary gland extract. Parasite Immunology, 22, 201–206.
  • Hemingway, J. & Ranson, H. (2000). Insecticide resistance in insect vectors of human disease. Annual Review of Entomology, 45, 371–391.
  • Hill, C. A. & Gutierrez, J. A. (2000). Analysis of the expressed genome of the Lone Star tick, Amblyomma americanum (Acari: Ixodidae) using expressed sequence tag approach. Microbial and Comparative Genomics, 5, 89–101.
  • Inokuma, H., Kerlin, R. L., Kemp, D. H. & Willadsen, P. (1993). Effects of cattle tick (Boophilus microplus) infestation on the bovine Inokuma, H., Kerlin, R. L., Kemp, D. H. & Willadsen, P. (1993). Effects of cattle tick (Boophilus microplus) infestation on the bovine immune system. Veterinary Parasitology, 47, 107–118.
  • Inokuma, H., Hara, Y., Aita, T. & Onishi, T. (1997). Effect of infestation with Rhipicephalus sanguineus on neutrophil function in dogs. Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 11, 401–403.
  • Inokuma, H., Aita, T., Ohno, K. & Onishi, T. (1998). Effects of infestation by Rhipicephalus sanguineus on lymphocyte blastogenic responses to mitogens in dogs. Journal of Veterinary Medical Science, 60, 1013–1016.
  • Jaworski, D. C., Jasinskas, A., Metz, C. N., Bucala, R. & Barbour, A. G. (2001). Identification and characterization of a homologue of the pro-inflammatory cytokine macrophage migration inhibitory factor in the tick, Amblyomma americanum. Insect Molecular Biology, 10, 323–331.
  • Jones, L. D., Hodgson, E. & Nuttall, P. A. (1989). Enhancement of virus transmission by tick salivary glands. Journal of General Virology, 70, 1895–1898.
  • Kalvachova, P., Hribalova, V., Kodym, P. & Volf, P. (1999). Modulation of murine lymphocyte responsiveness by the saliva of Rhodnius prolixus (Hemiptera: Reduviidae). Journal of Medical Entomology, 36, 341–344.
  • Kopecky, J. & Kuthejlova, M. (1998). Suppressive effect of Ixodes ricinus salivary gland extract on mechanisms of natural immunity in vitro. Parasite Immunology, 20, 169–174.
  • Kopecky, J., Kuthejlova, M. & Pechova, J. (1999). Salivary gland extract from Ixodes ricinus ticks inhibit production of interferon-γ by the upregulation of IL-10. Parasite Immunology, 21, 351–356.
  • Kotwal, G. J. (1996). The great escape. Immune evasion by pathogens. The Immunologist, 4, 157–164.
  • Kubes, M., Fuchsberger, N., Labuda, M., Zuffova, E. & Nuttall, P. A. (1994). Salivary gland extracts of partially fed Dermacentor reticulatus ticks decrease natural killer cell activity in vitro. Immunology, 82, 113–116.
  • Kuthejlova, M., Kopecky, J., Stepanova, G. & Macela, A. (2001). Tick salivary gland extract inhibits killing of Borrelia afzelii spirochetes by mouse macrophages. Infection and Immunity, 69, 575–578.
  • Labuda, M., Jones, L. D., Williams, T. & Nuttall, P. A. (1993). Enhancement of tick-borne encephalitis virus transmission by tick salivary gland extracts. Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 7, 193–196.
  • Lawrie, C. H., Randolph, S. E. & Nuttall, P. A. (1999). Ixodes ticks: serum species sensitivity of anticomplement activity. Experimental Parasitology, 93, 207–214.
  • Limesand, K. H., Higgs, S., Pearson, L. D. & Beaty, B. J. (2000). Potentiation of vesicular stomatitis New Jersey virus infection in mice by mosquito saliva. Parasite Immunology, 22, 461–467.
  • Macaluso, K. R. & Wikel, S. K. (2001). Dermacentor andersoni: effects of repeated infestations on lymphocyte proliferation, cytokine production, and adhesion-molecule expression by BALB/c mice. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 95, 413–427.
  • Marrack, P. & Kappler, J. (1994). Subversion of the immune system by pathogens. Cell, 76, 323–332.
  • Mbow, M. L., Bleyenberg, J. A., Hall, L. R. & Titus, R. G. (1998). Phlebotomus papatasi sand fly salivary gland lysate down-regulates a Th1, but up-regulates a Th2, response in mice infected with Leishmania major. Journal of Immunology, 161, 5571–5577.
  • McSwain, J. L., Essenberg, R. C. & Sauer, J. R. (1982). Protein changes in the salivary glands of the female lone star tick, Amblyomma americanum, during feeding. Journal of Parasitology, 68, 100–106.
  • Mejri, N., Franscini, N., Rutti, B. & Brossard, M. (2001). Th2 polarization of the immune response of BALB/c mice to Ixodes ricinus instars, importance of several antigens in activation of specific Th2 subpopulations. Parasite Immunology, 23, 61–69.
  • Mitchell, M. (1996). Acaricide resistance—back to basics. Tropical Animal Production, 28, 53S–58S.
  • Molyneux, D. H. (1998). Vector-borne parasitic diseases—an overview of recent changes. International Journal for Parasitology, 28, 927–934.
  • Naaby-Hansen, S., Waterfield, M. D. & Cramer, R. (2001). Proteomics—post-genomic cartography to understand gene function. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences, 22, 376–384.
  • Nishihira, J. (2000). Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF): its essential role in the immune system and cell growth. Journal of Interferon and Cytokine Research, 20, 751–762.
  • Nolan, J. (1990). Acaricide resistance in single and multi-host ticks and strategies for control. Parassitologia, 32, 145–153.
  • Paesen, G. C., Adams, P. L., Harlos, K., Nuttall, P. A. & Stuart, D. I. (1999). Tick histamine-binding proteins: isolation, cloning, and three-dimensional structure. Molecular Cell, 3, 661–671.
  • Paesen, G. C., Adams, P. L., Nuttall, P. A. & Stuart, D. I. (2000). Tick histamine-binding proteins: lipocalins with a second binding cavity. Biochemica et Biophysica Acta, 1482, 92–101.
  • Paine, S. H., Kemp, D. H. & Allen, J. R. (1983). In vitro feeding of Dermacentor andersoni (Stiles): effects of histamine and other mediators. Parasitology, 86, 419–428.
  • Pandey, A. & Lewitter, F. (1999). Nucleotide sequence databases: a gold mine for biologists. Trends in Biochemical Sciences, 24, 276–280.
  • Parola, P. & Raoult, D. (2001). Ticks and tickborne bacterial diseases in humans: an emerging infectious threat. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 32, 897–928.
  • Qureshi, A. A., Asahina, A., Ohnuma, M., Tajima, M., Granstein, R. D. & Lerner, E. A. (1996). Immunomodulatory properties of maxadilan, the vasodilator peptide from sand fly salivary gland extracts. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 54, 665–671.
  • Ramachandra, R. N. & Wikel, S. K. (1992). Modulation of host-immune responses by ticks (Acari: Ixodidae): Effect of salivary gland extracts on host macrophages and lymphocyte cytokine production. Journal of Medical Entomology, 29, 818–826.
  • Ramachandra, R. N. & Wikel, S. K. (1995). Effects of Dermacentor andersoni (Acari: Ixodidae) salivary gland extracts on Bos indicus and Bos taurus lymphocytes and macrophages: in vitro cytokine elaboration and lymphocyte blastogenesis. Journal of Medical Entomology, 32, 338–345.
  • Ramalho-Ortigao, J. M., Temporal, P., de Oliveira, S. M., Barbosa, A. F., Vilela, M., Rangel, E. F., Brazil, R. P. & Traub-Cseko, Y. M. (2001). Characterization of constitutive and putative differentially expressed mRNAs by means of expressed sequence tags, differential display, reverse transcrip-tase-PCR and randomly amplified polymorphic DNA-PCR from the sand fly vector Lutzomyia longipalpis. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, 96, 105–111.
  • Ribeiro, J. M. C. (1987). Ixodes dammini: salivary anti-complement activity. Experimental Parasitology, 64, 347–353.
  • Rlbeiro, J. M. C. (1989). Role of saliva in tick-host interactions. Experimental and Applied Acarology, 7, 15–20.
  • Ribeiro, J. M. C. (1995). Blood-feeding arthropods: live syringes or invertebrate pharmacologists? Infectious Agents and Disease, 4, 143–152.
  • Rlbeiro, J. M. C. (1996). Common problems of arthropod vectors of disease. In The Biology of Disease Vectors, eds Beaty, B. J. & Marquardt, W. C. pp. 25–34. Niwot, CO: University Press of Colorado.
  • Ribeiro, J. M. C. & Mather, T. N. (1998). Ixodes scapularis: salivary kininase activity is a metallo dipeptidyl carboxypeptidase. Experimental Parasitology, 89, 213–221.
  • Ribeiro, J. M. C. & Modi, G. (2001). The salivary adenosine/AMP content of Phlebotomus argentipes Annandale and Brunetti, the main vector of human kala-azar. Journal of Parasitology, 87, 915–917.
  • Ribeiro, J. M. C. & Spielman, A. (1986). Ixodes dammini: salivary anaphylatoxin inactivating activity. Experimental Parasitology, 62, 292–297.
  • Ribeiro, J. M. C. & Walker, F. A. (1994). High affinity histamine-binding and antihistaminic activity of the salivary nitric oxide-carrying protein (nitrophorin) of Rhodnius prolixus. Journal of Experimental Medicine, 180, 2251–2257.
  • Ribeiro, J. M. C., Weis, J. J. & Telford III, S. R. (1990). Saliva of the tick Ixodes dammini inhibits neutrophil function. Experimental Parasitology, 70, 382–388.
  • Sandeman, R. M. (1996). Immune responses to mosquitoes and flies. In The Immunology of Host-ectopar-asitic Arthropod Relationships, ed. Wikel, S. K. pp. 175–203. Wallingford, U.K.: CAB International.
  • Schoeler, G. B., Manweiler, S. A. & Wikel, S. K. (1999). Ixodes scapularis: effects of repeated infestations with pathogen-free nymphs on macrophage and T lymphocyte cytokine responses of BALB/c and C3H/HeN mice. Experimental Parasitology, 92, 239–248.
  • Schoeler, G. B., Manweiler, S. A., Bergman, D. K. & Wikel, S. K. (2000a). Influence of repeated infestations with pathogen-free Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae) on in vitro lymphocyte proliferation responses of C3H/infestations with pathogen-free Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae) on in vitro lymphocyte proliferation responses of C3H/HeN mice. Journal of Medical Entomology, 37, 885–892.
  • Schoeler, G. B., Manweiler, S. A. & Wikel, S. K. (2000b). Cytokine responses of C3H/HeN mice infested with Ixodes scapularis or Ixodes pacificus nymphs. Parasite Immunology, 22, 31–40.
  • Schorderet, S. & Brossard, M. (1993). Changes in immunity to Ixodes ricinus by rabbits infested at different levels. Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 7, 186–192.
  • Shaw, M. K., Tilney, L. G. & McKeever, D. J. (1993). Tick salivary gland extract and interleukin-2 stimulation enhance susceptibility of lymphocytes to infection by Theileria parva sporozoites. Infection and Immunity, 61, 1486–1495.
  • Soares, M. B. P., Titus, R. G., Shoemaker, C. B., David, J. R. & Bozza, M. (1998). The vasoactive peptide maxadilan from sand fly saliva inhibits TNF-α and induces IL-6 by mouse macrophages through interaction with the PACAP receptor. Journal of Immunology, 160, 1811–1816.
  • Sonenshine, D. E. (1991). The Biology of Ticks, Vol. 1. New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Springer, T. A. (1995). Traffic signals on endothelium for lymphocyte recirculation and leukocyte emigration. Annual Review of Physiology, 57, 827–872.
  • Stark, K. R. & James, A. A. (1996). The salivary glands of disease vectors. In The Biology of Disease Vectors, eds Beaty, B. J. & Marquardt, W. C. pp. 333–348. Niwot, CO: University Press of Colorado.
  • Theodos, C. M. & Titus, R. G. (1993). Salivary gland material from the sand fly Lutzomyia longipalpis has an inhibitory effect on macrophage function in vitro. Parasite Immunology, 15, 481–487.
  • Titus, R. G. & Ribeiro, J. M. C. (1988). Salivary gland lysates from the sand fly, Lutzomyia longipalpis, enhance Leishmania infectivity. Science, 239, 1306–1308.
  • Trinchieri, G. (1989). Biology of natural killer cells. Advances in Immunology, 47, 187–376.
  • Urioste, S., Hall, L. R., Telford III, S. R. & Titus, R. G. (1994). Saliva of the Lyme disease vector, Ixodes dammini, blocks cell activation by a nonprostaglandin E2-dependent mechanism. Journal of Experimental Medicine, 180, 1077–1085.
  • Valenzuela, J. G., Charlab, R., Mather, T. N. & Ribeiro, J. M. C. (2000). Purification, cloning, and expression of a novel salivary anticomplement protein from the tick, Ixodes scapularis. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 275, 18 717–18 723.
  • Van Loveren, H., Redegeld, F., Matsuda, H., Buckley, T., Teppema, J. S. & Garssen, J. (1997). Mast cells. In Skin Immune System (SIS), 2nd Edn, ed. Bos, J. D. pp. 159–184. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
  • Volf, P., Tesarova, P. & Nohynkova, E. (2000). Salivary proteins and glycoproteins in phlebotomine sandflies of various species, sex and age. Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 14, 251–256.
  • Waitumbi, J. & Warburg, A. (1998). Phlebotomus papatasi saliva inhibits protein phosphatase activity and nitric oxide production by murine macrophages. Infection and Immunity, 66, 1534–1537.
  • Wikel, S. K. (1979). Acquired resistance to ticks. Expression of resistance by C4 deficient guinea pigs. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 28, 586–590.
  • Wikel, S. K. (1982a). Immune responses to arthropods and their products. Annual Review of Entomology, 27, 21–48.
  • Wikel, S. K. (1982b). Histamine content of tick attachment sites and the effects of H1 and H2 histamine antagonists on the expression of resistance. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 76, 179–185.
  • Wikel, S. K. (1982c). Influence of Dermacentor andersoni infestation on lymphocyte responsiveness to mitogens. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 76, 627–632.
  • Wikel, S. K. (1985). Effects of tick infestation on the plaque-forming cell response to a thymic dependent antigen. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 79, 195–198.
  • Wikel, S. K. (1996). Host immunity to ticks. Annual Review of Entomology, 41, 1–22.
  • Wikel, S. K. (1999a). Modulation of the host immune system by ectoparasitic arthropods. BioScience, 49, 311–320.
  • Wikel, S. K. (1999b). Tick modulation of host immunity: an important factor in pathogen transmission. International Journal for Parasitology, 29, 851–859.
  • Wikel, S. K. & Allen, J. R. (1977). Acquired resistance to ticks. III. Cobra venom factor and the resistance response. Immunology, 32, 457–465.
  • Wikel, S. K. & Bergman, D. K. (1997). Tick-host immunology: significant advances and challenging opportunities. Parasitology Today, 13, 383–389.
  • Wikel, S. K. & Osburn, R. L. (1982). Immune responsiveness of the bovine host to repeated low-level infestations with Dermacentor andersoni. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 76, 405–414.
  • Willadsen, P. (1980). Immunity to ticks. Advances in Parasitology, 18, 293–313.
  • Willadsen, P. & Jongejan, F. (1999). Immunology of the tick-host interaction and the control of ticks and tick-borne diseases. Parasitology Today, 15, 258–262.
  • Willadsen, P., Wood, G. M. & Riding, G. A. (1979). The relation between skin histamine concentration, histamine sensitivity, and the resistance of cattle to the tick, Boophilus microplus. Zeitschrift für Parasitenkunde, 59, 87–93.
  • Yin, H., Norris, D. E. & Lanzaro, G. C. (2000). Sibling species in the Lutzomyia longipalpis complex differ in levels of mRNA expression for the salivary peptide, maxadilan. Insect Molecular Biology, 9, 309–314.
  • Zeidner, N., Dreitz, M., Belasso, D. & Fish, D. (1996). Suppression of acute Ixodes scapulans-induced Borrelia burgdorferi infection using tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-2, and interferon-gamma. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 173, 187–195.
  • Zeidner, N. S., Mbow, M. L., Dolan, M., Massung, R., Baca, E. & Piesman, J. (1997). Effects of Ixodes scapularis and Borrelia burgdorferi on the modulation of the host immune response: induction of a TH2 cytokine response in Lyme disease susceptible (C3H/HeJ) but not in disease-resistant (BALB/c) mice. Infection and Immunity, 65, 3100–2106.
  • Zeidner, N. S., Higgs, S., Happ, C. M., Beaty, B. J. & Miller, B. R. (1999). Mosquito feeding modulates Th1 and Th2 cytokines in flavivirus susceptible mice: an effect mimicked by injection of sialokinins, but not demonstrated in flavivirus resistant mice. Parasite Immunology, 21, 35–44.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.