The Impact of Cultural Heterogeneity on Violence in Indonesia: Fractionalisation versus polarization

References

• Ahlerup, P. 2009. “The Causal Effects of Ethnic Diversity: An Instrumental Variables Approach.” University of Gotheburg Working Paper in Economics No. 386.
   Google Scholar
• Ahlerup, P., and O. Olsson. 2012. “The Roots of Ethnic Diversity.” Journal of Economic Growth 17 (2): 71–102. doi:10.1007/s10887-011-9075-0.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allport, G. W., K. Clark, and T. Pettigrew. 1954. The Nature of Prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Books.
   Google Scholar
• Anggriyani, D. S., and T. Dartanto. 2019. “Unity in Diversity: Socioeconomic Aspects and Growth of Conflict in Indonesia.” International Journal of Business & Society 20(S1), 197–209. http://www.ijbs.unimas.my/index.php/volume-11-20/volume-20-s1-2019/586-unity-in-diversity-socioeconomic-aspects-and-growth-of-conflict-in-indonsia
   Google Scholar
• Arocena, F. 2008. “Multiculturalism in Brazil, Bolivia and Peru.” Race & Class 49 (4): 1–21. doi:10.1177/0306396808089284.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baidhawy, Z. 2007. “Building Harmony and Peace Through Multiculturalist Theology-Based Religious Education: An Alternative for Contemporary Indonesia.” British Journal of Religious Education 29 (1): 15–30. doi:10.1080/01416200601037478.
   Google Scholar
• Barron, P., K. Kaiser, and M. Pradhan. 2009. “Understanding Variations in Local Conflict: Evidence and Implications from Indonesia.” World Development 37 (3): 698–713. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2008.08.007.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barron, P., R. Diprose, and M. Woolcock. 2011. Contesting Development. Yale University Press. www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt5vkw76.
   Google Scholar
• Barron, P., S. Jaffrey, and A. Varshney. 2016. “When Large Conflicts Subside: The Ebbs and Flows of Violence in Post-Suharto Indonesia.” Journal of East Asian Studies 16: 191–217. doi:10.1017/jea.2016.6.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bazzi, S., and M. Gudgeon. 2021. “The Political Boundaries of Ethnic Divisions.” American Economic Journal Applied Economics 13 (1): 235–266. doi:10.1257/app.20190309.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bellwood, P., and E. Dizon. 2008. ”Austronesian Cultural Origins: Out of Taiwan, via the Batanes Islands, and Onwards to Western Polynesia.” In Past Human Migrations in East Asia, edited by A. Sanchez-Mazas, R. Blench, M. D. Ross, I. Peiros, and M. Lin, 55–71. Oxon: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Bertrand, J. 2008. “Ethnic Conflicts in Indonesia: National Models, Critical Junctures, and the Timing of Violence.” Journal of East Asian Studies 8 (03): 425–449. doi:10.1017/s1598240800006494.
   Google Scholar
• Blalock, H. M. 1967. Toward a Theory of Minority-Group Relations. Vol. 325. New York: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Blimes, R. J. 2006. “The Indirect Effect of Ethnic Heterogeneity on the Likelihood of Civil War Onset.” The Journal of Conflict Resolution 50 (4): 536–547. doi:10.1177/00222706289402.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cederman, L. E., and L. Girardin. 2007. “Beyond Fractionalization: Mapping Ethnicity Onto Nationalist Insurgencies.” The American Political Science Review 101 (01): 173–185. doi:10.1017/s0003055407070086.
   Google Scholar
• Collier, P., and A. Hoeffler. 1998. “On Economic Causes of Civil War.” Oxford Economic Papers 50 (4): 563–573. doi:10.1093/oep/50.4.563.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collier, P., and A. Hoeffler. 2002. “On the Incidence of Civil War in Africa.” The Journal of Conflict Resolution 46 (1): 13–28. doi:10.1177/0022002702046001002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Juan, A., J. H. Pierskalla, and J. Vüllers. 2015. “The Pacifying Effects of Local Religious Institutions: An Analysis of Communal Violence in Indonesia.” Political Research Quarterly 68 (2): 211–224. doi:10.1177/1065912915578460.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Desmet, K., I. Ortuño-Ortín, and S. Weber. 2009. “Linguistic Diversity and Redistribution.” Journal of the European Economic Association 7 (6): 1291–1318. doi:10.1162/jeea.2009.7.6.1291.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Desmet, K., I. Ortuño-Ortín, and R. Wacziarg. 2012. “The Political Economy of Linguistic Cleavages.” Journal of Development Economics 97 (2): 322–338. doi:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2011.02.003.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Easterly, W., and R. Levine. 1997. “Africa’s Growth Tragedy: Policies and Ethnic Divisions.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 112 (4): 1203–1250. doi:10.1162/003355300555466.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Easterly, W. 2001. “Can Institutions Resolve Ethnic Conflict?” Economic Development and Cultural Change 49 (4): 687–706. doi:10.1086/452521.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elbadawi, I., and N. Sambanis. 2000. “Why are There so Many Civil Wars in Africa? Understanding and Preventing Violent Conflict.” Journal of African Economics 9 (3): 244–269. doi:10.1093/jae/9.3.244.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Esteban, J., and D. Ray. 1994. “On the Measurement of Polarization.” Econometrica 62 (4): 819. doi:10.2307/2951734.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Esteban, J., and D. Ray. 1999. “Conflict and Distribution.” Journal of Economic Theory 87 (2): 379–415. doi:10.1006/jeth.1999.2549.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Esteban, J., and D. Ray. 2008. “Polarization, Fractionalization and Conflict.” Journal of Peace Research 45 (2): 163–182. doi:10.1177/0022343307087175.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Esteban, J., and D. Ray. 2011a. “A Model of Ethnic Conflict.” Journal of the European Economic Association 9 (3): 496–521. doi:10.1111/j.1542-4774.2010.01016.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Esteban, J., and D. Ray. 2011b. “Linking Conflict to Inequality and Polarization.” The American Economic Review 101 (4): 1345–1374. doi:10.1257/aer.101.4.1345.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Esteban, J., L. Mayoral, and D. Ray. 2012. “Ethnicity and Conflict: An Empirical Study.” The American Economic Review 102 (4): 1310–1342. doi:10.1257/aer.102.4.1310.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fearon, J. D. 2003. “Ethnic and Cultural Diversity by Country.” Journal of Economic Growth 8 (2): 195–222.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fearon, J. D. 2004. “Why Do Some Civil Wars Last so Much Longer Than Others?” Journal of Peace Research 41 (3): 275–301. doi:10.1177/0022343304043770.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fearon, J. D., K. Kasara, and D. D. Laitin. 2007. “Ethnic Minority Rule and Civil War Onset.” The American Political Science Review 101 (01): 187–193. doi:10.1017/s0003055407070219.
   Google Scholar
• GADM. 2018. GADM Maps and Data. https://gadm.org/about.html
   Google Scholar
• Groot, D., and J. Olaf. 2011. “Culture, Contiguity and Conflict: On the Measurement of Ethnolinguistic Effects in Spatial Spillovers.” The Journal of Development Studies 47 (3): 436–454. doi:10.1080/00220381003599386.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gubler, J. R., J. Sawat Selway, and A. Varshney. 2016. “Crosscutting Cleavages and Ethno-Communal Violence: Evidence from Indonesia in the Post-Suharto Era.” WIDER Working Paper, No. 2016/129.
   Google Scholar
• Horowitz, D. L. 1985. Ethnic Groups in Conflict. Berkeley: University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• Indra, S. N., D. Hartono, and S. Sumarto. 2019. “Roles of Income Polarization, Income Inequality and Ethnic Fractionalization in Social Conflicts: An Empirical Study of Indonesian Provinces, 2002–2012.” Asian Economic Journal 33 (2): 165–190. doi:10.1111/asej.12179.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewbel, A. 2012. “Using Heteroscedasticity to Identify and Estimate Mismeasured and Endogenous Regressor Models.” Journal of Business & Economic Statistics 30 (1): 67–80. doi:10.1080/07350015.2012.643126.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mancini, L. 2008. ”Horizontal Inequality and Communal Violence: Evidence from Indonesian Districts.” In Horizontal Inequalities and Conflict, edited by F. Stewart, 106–135. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan UK.
   Google Scholar
• Mason, T. David, M. Gurses, T. B. Patrick, and J. Michael Quinn. 2011. “When Civil Wars Recur: Conditions for Durable Peace After Civil Wars.” International Studies Perspectives 12 (2): 171–189. doi:10.1111/j.1528-3585.2011.00426.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McRae, D. 2010. “Reintegration and Localised Conflict: Security Impacts Beyond Influencing Spoilers.” Conflict, Security & Development 10 (3): 403–430. doi:10.1080/14678802.2010.484204.
   Google Scholar
• Michalopoulos, S. 2012. “The Origins of Ethnolinguistic Diversity.” The American Economic Review 102 (4): 1508–1539. doi:10.1257/aer.102.4.1508.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Minnesota Population Center. 2015. ‘Integrated Public Use Microdata Series, International: Version 6.4 [Dataset]’. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota.
   Google Scholar
• Montalvo, J. G., and M. Reynal-Querol. 2005. “Ethnic Polarization, Potential Conflict, and Civil Wars.” The American Economic Review 95 (3): 796–816. doi:10.1257/0002828054201468.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Østby, G., H. Urdal, M. Z. Tadjoeddin, S. M. Murshed, and H. Strand. 2011. “Population Pressure, Horizontal Inequality and Political Violence: A Disaggregated Study of Indonesian Provinces, 1990–2003.” The Journal of Development Studies 47 (3): 377–398. doi:10.1080/00220388.2010.506911.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peter, B., J. J. Fox, and D. Tryon. 1995. Austronesian Prehistory in Southeast Asia: Homeland, Expansion and Transformation. Canberra: ANU E Press.
   Google Scholar
• Pierskalla, J. H., and A. Sacks. 2017. “Unpacking the Effect of Decentralized Governance on Routine Violence: Lessons from Indonesia.” World Development 90: 213–228. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.09.008.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramachandran, S., O. Deshpande, C. C. Roseman, N. A. Rosenberg, M. W. Feldman, and L. Luca Cavalli-Sforza. 2005. “Support from the Relationship of Genetic and Geographic Distance in Human Populations for a Serial Founder Effect Originating in Africa.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 102 (44): 15942–15947. doi:10.1073/pnas.0507611102.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramankutty, N., J. A. Foley, J. Norman, and K. McSweeney. 2002. “The Global Distribution of Cultivable Lands: Current Patterns and Sensitivity to Possible Climate Change.” Global Ecology and Biogeography 11 (5): 377–392. doi:10.1046/j.1466-822x.2002.00294.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reilly, B. 2001. “Democracy, Ethnic Fragmentation, and Internal Conflict: Confused Theories, Faulty Data, and the “Crucial Case” of Papua New Guinea.” International Security 25 (3): 162–185. doi:10.1162/016228800560552.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robinson, G. 2017. ““Down to the Very Roots”: The Indonesian Army’s Role in the Mass Killings of 1965–66.” Journal of Genocide Research 19 (4): 465–486. doi:10.1080/14623528.2017.1393935.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samuel, B., A. Gaduh, A. D. Rothenberg, and M. Wong. 2019. “Unity in Diversity? How Intergroup Contact Can Foster Nation Building.” The American Economic Review 109 (11): 3978–4025. doi:10.1257/aer.20180174.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simons, G. F., and C. D. Fennig. 2017. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Dallas, Texas: SIL International.
   Google Scholar
• Spriggs, M., J. Bowden, N. P. Himmelmann, and M. Ross 2010. ”“I Was so Much Older Then, I’m Younger Than That Now”: Why the Dates Keep Changing for the Spread of Austronesian Languages.” In A Journey Through Austronesian and Papuan Linguistic and Cultural Space: Papers in Honour of Andrew Pawley, edited by J. Bowden, N. P. Himmelmann, and M. Ross. 113-140. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
   Google Scholar
• Steven Fish, M., and M. Kroenig. 2006. “Diversity, Conflict and Democracy: Some Evidence from Eurasia and East Europe.” Democratization 13 (5): 828–842. doi:10.1080/13510340601010735.
   Google Scholar
• Tadjoeddin, M. Z. 2002. “Anatomy of Social Violence in the Context of Transition: The Case of Indonesia 1990-2001.” Working Paper 02/01, Jakarta: UNSFIR.
   Google Scholar
• Tadjoeddin, M. Z., and S. Mansoob Murshed. 2007. “Socio-Economic Determinants of Everyday Violence in Indonesia: An Empirical Investigation of Javanese Districts, 1994 2003.” Journal of Peace Research 44 (6): 689–709. doi:10.1177/0022343307082063.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tadjoeddin, M. Z., A. Yumna, S. E. Gultom, M. Fajar Rakhmadi, and A. Suryahadi. 2020. “Inequality and Violent Conflict: New Evidence from Selected Provinces in Post-Soeharto Indonesia.” Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy 1–22. doi:10.1080/13547860.2020.1773607.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tajima, Y. 2013. “The Institutional Basis of Intercommunal Order: Evidence from Indonesia’s Democratic Transition.” American Journal of Political Science 57 (1): 104–119. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5907.2012.00631.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Varshney, A. 2008. “Analyzing Collective Violence in Indonesia: An Overview.” Journal of East Asian Studies 8 (3): 341–359. doi:10.1017/S1598240800006469.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Bank. 2018. National Violence Monitoring System 2014’. Jakarta, Indonesia: World Bank Indonesia. https://microdata.worldbank.org/index.php/catalog/2626
   Google Scholar