2,125
Views
62
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

Propagules of marine macroalgae: Structure and development

Pages 219-232 | Accepted 31 Jan 1992, Published online: 17 Feb 2007

References

  • Allen , N.S. and Brawley , S.H. 1984 . Observations of exocytosis in Fucus vesiculosus gametes using video-enhanced light microscopy . Cell Motil. , 4 : 25 – 27 .
  • Alley , C.D. and Scott , J.L. 1977 . Unusual dictyosome morphology and vesicle formation in tetrasporangia of the marine red alga Polysiphonia denudata . J. Ultrastruct. Res. , 58 : 289 – 298 .
  • Amsler , C.D. and Neushul , M. 1991 . Photosynthetic physiology and chemical composition of spores of the kelps Macrocystis pyrifera, Nereocystis luetkeana, Laminaria farlowii and Pterygophora californica (Phaeophyceae) . J. Phycol. , 27 : 26 – 34 .
  • Baker , J.R.J. and Evans , L.V. 1973a . The ship-fouling alga Ectocarpus I. Ultrastructure and cytochemistry of plurilocular reproductive stages . Protoplasma , 77 : 1 – 13 .
  • Baker , J.R.J. and Evans , L.V. 1973b . The ship-fouling alga Ectocarpus II. Ultrastructure of the unilocular reproductive stages . Protoplasma , 77 : 181 – 189 .
  • Boney , A.D. 1975 . Mucilage sheaths of spores of red algae . J. mar. biol. Ass. UK. , 55 : 511 – 518 .
  • Boney , A.D. 1978 . The liberation and dispersal of carpospores of the red alga Rhodymenia pertusa (Postels et Rupr.) J. Ag. . J. exp. mar. Biol. Ecol. , 32 : 1 – 6 .
  • Boney , A.D. 1981 . Mucilage: the ubiquitous algal attribute . Br. phycol. J. , 16 : 115 – 132 .
  • Borowitzka , M.A. 1978 . Plastid development and floridean starch grain formation during carposporogenesis in the coralline red alga Lithothrix aspergillum Gray . Protoplasma , 95 : 217 – 228 .
  • Brawley , S.H. and Quatrano , R.S. 1979 . Sulphation of fucoidan in Fucus embryos. IV. Autoradiographic investigations of fucoidan sulphation and secretion during differentiation and the effect of cytochalasin treatments . Dev. Biol. , 73 : 193 – 205 .
  • Brawley , S.H. and Wetherbee , R. 1981 . “ Cytology and Ultrastructure ” . In Biology of Seaweeds , Edited by: Lobban , C.S. and Wynne , M.J. 248 – 299 . Oxford : Blackwell Scientific Publications . In
  • Brawley , S.H. , Wetherbee , R. and Quatrano , R.S. 1976 . Fine-structural studies of the gametes and embryo of Fucus vesiculosus L. (Phaeophyta). II. The cytoplasm of the egg and young zygote . J. Cell Sci. , 20 : 255 – 271 .
  • Burr , F.A. and West , J.A. 1970 . Light and electron microscope observations on the vegetative and reproductive structures of Bryopsis hypnoides . Phycologia , 9 : 17 – 37 .
  • Buschmann , A.H. and Bravo , A. 1990 . Intertidal amphipods as potential disperal agents of carpospores of Iridaea laminarioides (Gigartinales, Rhodophyta) . J. Phycol. , 26 : 417 – 420 .
  • Callow , M.E. and Evans , L.V. 1974 . Studies on the ship-fouling alga Enteromorpha III. Cytochemistry and autoradiography of adhesive production . Protoplasma , 80 : 15 – 27 .
  • Callow , M.E. , Coughlan , S.J. and Evans , L.V. 1978 . The role of Golgi bodies in polysaccharide sulphation in Fucus zygotes . J. Cell Sci. , 32 : 337 – 356 .
  • Chamberlain , A.H.L. and Evans , L.V. 1973 . Aspects of spore production in the red alga Ceramium . Protoplasma , 76 : 139 – 159 .
  • Chihara , M. 1973 . The significance of reproductive and spore germination characteristics in the systematics of the Corallinaceae: articulated coralline algae . Jap. J. Bot. , 20 : 369 – 379 .
  • Christie , A.O. , Evans , L.V. and Shaw , M. 1970 . Studies on the ship-fouling alga Enteromorpha. II. The effect of certain enzymes on the adhesion of zoospores . Ann. Bot. , 34 : 451 – 466 .
  • Clayton , M.N. 1978 . Morphological variation and life history in cylindrical forms of Scytosiphon lomentaria (Scytosiphonaceae: Phaeophyta) from southern Australia . Mar. Biol. , 47 : 349 – 357 .
  • Clayton , M.N. 1980 . Sexual reporduction — a rare occurrence in the life history of the complanate form of Scytosiphon (Scytosiphonaeae, Phaeophyta) from southern Australia . Br. phycol. J. , 15 : 105 – 118 .
  • Clayton , M.N. 1989 . “ Brown algae and chromophyte phylogeny ” . In The Chromophyte Algae: Problems and Perspectives , Edited by: Green , J.C. , Leadbeater , B.S.C. and Diver , W.I. 229 – 253 . Oxford : Clarendon Press . In
  • Clayton , M.N. 1990 . The adaptive significance of life history characters in selected orders of marine brown macroalgae . Aust. J. Ecol. , 15 : 439 – 452 .
  • Clayton , M.N. 1991 . Sexual reproduction and the life history of Splachnidium rugosum (Phaeophyceae) . Br. phycol. J. , 26 : 279 – 294 .
  • Clayton , M.N. and Beakes , G.W. 1983 . Effects of fixatives in the ultrastructure of physodes in vegetative cells on Scytosiphon lomentaria (Scytosiphonaceae, Phaeophyta) . J. Phycol. , 19 : 4 – 16 .
  • Cole , K. and Akintobi , S. 1963 . The life cycle of Prasiola meridionalis Setchell and Gardner . Can. J. Bot. , 41 : 661 – 667 .
  • Coon , D.A. , Neushul , M. and Charters , A.C. 1972 . The settling behaviour of marine algal spores . Proc. 7th Int. Seaweed Symp. , : 237 – 242 .
  • Delivopoulos , S.G. and Kugrens , P. 1984 . Ultrastructure of carposporogenesis in the parasitic red alga Faucheocolax attenuata Setch. (Rhodymeniales, Rhodymeniceae) . Amer. J. Bot. , 71 : 1245 – 1259 .
  • Dodge , J.D. 1969 . A review of the fine structure of algal eyespots . Br. phycol. J. , 4 : 199 – 210 .
  • Dunphy , W.G. and Rothman , J.E. 1985 . Compartmental organization of the Golgi stack . Cell , 42 : 13 – 21 .
  • Evans , L.V. and Callow , M.E. 1976 . “ Secretory processes in seaweeds ” . In Perspectives in Experimental Biology Volume 2 Botany , Edited by: Sunderland , N. 478 – 499 . Oxford : Pergamon Press . In
  • Evans , L.V. and Christie , A.O. 1970 . Studies on the ship-fouling alga Enteromorpha I. Aspects of the fine-structure and biochemistry of swimming and newly settled zoospores . Ann. Bot. , 34 : 451 – 466 .
  • Evans , L.V. and Holligan , M.S. 1972 . Correlated light and electron microscope studies on brown algae. I. Localization of alginic acid and sulphated polysaccharides in Dictyota . New Phytol. , 71 : 1161 – 1172 .
  • Evans , L.V. , Callow , J.A. and Callow , M.E. 1982 . “ The biology and biochemistry of reproduction and early development in Fucus ” . In Progress in Phycological Research Vol. 1 , Edited by: Round , F.E. and Chapman , D.J. 67 – 110 . Amsterdam : Elsevier . In
  • Farquar , M.G. 1985 . Progress in unravelling pathways of Golgi traffic . Ann. Rev. Cell Biol. , 1 : 447 – 488 .
  • Fletcher , R.L. and Callow , M.E. 1991 . Settlement and attachment of algal spores . J. Phycol. , 27 : 21 – 21 . (Suppl)
  • Geller , A. and Müller , D.G. 1981 . Analysis of the flagellar beat pattern of male Ectocarpus siliculosus gametes (Phaeophyta) in relation to chemotactic stimulation by female cells . J. exp. Biol. , 92 : 53 – 66 .
  • Gieselman , J.A. and McConnell , O.J. 1981 . Polyphenols in brown algae Fucus vesiculosus and Ascophyllum nodosum: chemical defenses against the marine herbivorous snail, Littorina littorea . J. chem. Ecol. , 7 : 1115 – 1133 .
  • Gori , P. 1980 . Ultrastructure of carpospores in Gastroclonium clavatum. (Roth) Ardissone (Rhodymeniales) . Protoplasma , 103 : 263 – 271 .
  • Greenspan , P. , Mayer , E.P. and Fowler , S.D. 1985 . Nile Red: a selective fluorescent stain for intracellular lipid droplets . J. Cell Biol. , 100 : 965 – 973 .
  • Guiry , M.G. 1990 . “ Sporangia and Spores ” . In Biology of the Red Algae , Edited by: Cole , K.M. and Sheath , R.G. 347 – 376 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . In
  • Hardy , F.G. and Moss , B.L. 1979 . Attachment and development of the zygotes of Pelvetia canaliculata (L.) Dene. et Thur. (Phaeophyceae, Fucales) . Phycologia , 18 : 203 – 212 .
  • Henry , E.C. and Cole , K.M. 1982 . Ultrastructure of swarmers in the Laminariales (Phaeophyceae). I. Zoospores . J. Phycol. , 18 : 550 – 569 .
  • Hoffmann , A.J. 1987 . The arrival of propagules at the shore: a review . Botanica mar. , 30 : 151 – 165 .
  • Hunnicutt , G.R. and Snell , W.J. 1991 . Rapid and slow mechanisms for loss of adhesiveness during fertilization in Chlamydomonas. II: Monosporogenesis . Dev. Biol. , 147 : 216 – 224 .
  • Hymes , B.J. and Cole , K.M. 1983 . The cytology of Audouinella hermannii (Rhodophyta, Florideophyceae). II: Monosporogenesis . Can. J. Bot. , 61 : 3377 – 3385 .
  • Johnson , C.R. and Mann , K.H. 1989 . The importance of plant defence abilities to the structure of subtidal seaweed communities: the kelp Laminaria longicruris de la Pylaie survives grazing by the snail Lacuna vincta (Montagu) at high population densities . J. exp. mar. Biol. Ecol. , 58 : 231 – 267 .
  • Jónsson , S. and Chesnoy , L. 1974 . Etude ultrastructurale de l'incorporation des axonèmes flagellaires dans les zygotes du Monostroma grevillei (Thuret) Wittr. Chlorophycée marine C. R. . Acad. Sci. Paris, Sér. D , 278 : 1557 – 1560 .
  • Kain , J.M. 1964 . Aspects of the biology of Laminaria hyperborea III. Survival and growth of gametophytes . J. mar. biol. Ass. U.K. , 44 : 415 – 433 .
  • Kawai , H. 1988 . A flavin-like autofluorescent substance in the posterior flagellum of golden and brown algae . J. Phycol. , 24 : 114 – 117 .
  • Kreimer , G. and Melkonian , M. 1990 . Reflection confocal laser scanning microscopy of eyespots in flagellated green algae . European J. Cell Biol. , 53 : 101 – 111 .
  • Kreimer , G. , Kawai , H. , Müller , D.G. and Melkonian , M. 1991 . Reflective properties of the stigma in male gametes of Ectocarpus siliculosus (Phaeophyceae) studied by confocal laser scanning microscopy . J. Phycol. , 27 : 268 – 276 .
  • Kugrens , P. and West , J.A. 1972 . Ultrastructure of tetrasporogenesis in the parasitic red alga Levringiella gardneri (Setchell) Kylin . J. Phycol. , 8 : 370 – 383 .
  • Kugrens , P. and West , J.A. 1973 . The ultrastructure of carpospore differentiation in the parasitic red alga Levringiella gardneri (Setch.) Kylin . Phycologia , 12 : 163 – 173 .
  • La Claire , J.W. and West , J.A. 1978 . Light- and electron-microscopic studies of growth and reproduction in Cutleria (Phaeophyta). I. Gametogenesis in the female plant of C. hancockii . Protoplasma , 97 : 93 – 110 .
  • Liddle , L.B. and Neushul , M. 1969 . Reproduction in Zonaria farlowii. II. Cytology and ultractructure . J. Phycol. , 5 : 4 – 12 .
  • Macraild , G.N. and Womersley , H.B.S. 1974 . The morphology and reproduction of Derbesia clavaeformis (J. Agardh) De Toni (Chlorophyta) . Phycologia , 13 : 83 – 93 .
  • Maier , I. and Müller , D.G. 1991 . Chemotaxis in Laminaria digitata (Phaeophyceae) . J. exp. Bot. , 41 : 869 – 876 .
  • Markey , D.R. and Wilce , R.T. 1976 . The ultrastructure of reproduction in the brown alga Pylaiella littoralis II. Zoosporogenesis in the unilocular sporangia . Protoplasma , 88 : 147 – 173 .
  • May , D.I. and Clayton , M.N. 1991 . Oogenesis, the formation of oogonial stalks and fertilisation in Sargassum vestitum (Fucales, Phaeophyta) from southern Australia . Phycologia , 30 : 243 – 256 .
  • McBride , D.L. and Cole , K.C. 1971 . Electron microscopic observations on the differentiation and release of monospores in the marine red alga Smithora naiadum . Phycologia , 10 : 49 – 61 .
  • McCully , M.E. 1968 . Histological studies on the genus Fucus. II. Histology of the reproductive tissues . Protoplasma , 66 : 205 – 230 .
  • McLachlan , J. and Bidwell , R.G.S. 1978 . Photosynthesis of eggs, sperm, zygotes, and embryos of Fucus serratus . Can. J. Bot. , 56 : 371 – 373 .
  • Meinesz , A. 1980 . Connaissances actuelles et contribution à l'étude de la reproduction et du cycle des Udotéacées (Caulerpales, Chlorophytes) . Phycologia , 19 : 110 – 138 .
  • Melkonian , M. 1980 . Flagellar roots, mating structure and gamete fusion in the green alga Ulva lactuca (Ulvales) . J. Cell Sci. , 46 : 149 – 169 .
  • Melkonian , M. 1982 . “ The functional analysis of the flagellar apparatus in Green algae ” . In Symp. Soc. Exceptl Biol. 35 , Edited by: Amos , W.B. and Duckett , J.G. 203 – 223 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . In
  • Melkonian , M. and Robenek , H. 1984 . “ The eyespot apparatus of flagellated green algae: a critical review ” . In Progress in Phycological Research Vol. 3 , Edited by: Round , F.E. and Chapman , D.J. 193 – 268 . Bristol : Biopress Ltd . In
  • Micalef , H. and Gayral , P. 1972 . Quelques aspects de l'infrastructure des cellules végétatives et des cellules reproductrices d'Ulva lactuca L. (Chlorophycées) . J. Microscopie , 13 : 417 – 428 .
  • Moestrup , Ø. 1982 . Flagellar structure in algae: a review, with new observations particularly on the Chrysophyceae, Phaeophyceae (Fucophyceae), Euglenophyceae, and Reckertia . Phycologia , 21 : 427 – 528 .
  • Moorjani , S. and Jones , W.E. 1972 . Spore attachment and development in some coralline algae . Br. phycol. J. , 7 : 282 – 282 .
  • Müller , D.G. 1977 . Sexual reproduction in British Ectocarpus siliculosus (Phaeophyta) . Br. phycol. J. , 12 : 131 – 136 .
  • Müller , D.G. and Falk , H. 1973 . Flagellar structure of the gametes of Ectocarpus siliculosus (Phaeophyta) as revealed by negative staining . Archiv für Mikrobiol. , 91 : 312 – 322 .
  • Müller , D.G. and Gassmann , G. 1985 . Sexual reproduction and the role of sperm attractants in monoecious species of the brown algae order Fucales (Fucus, Hesperophycus, Pelvetia, and Pelvetiopsis) . J. Plant Physiol. , 118 : 401 – 408 .
  • Müller , D.G. , Boland , W. , Gassmann , G. and Jaenicke , L. 1985 . Diversification of chemoreceptors in Ectocarpus, Sphacelaria and Adenocystis. (Phaeophyceae) . Z. Naturforsch. , 40c : 457 – 459 .
  • Müller , D.G. , Maier , I. and Müller , H. 1987 . Flagellum autofluorescence and photoaccumulation in heterokont algae . Phytochem. Photobiol. , 46 : 1003 – 1008 .
  • Musgrave , A. 1987 . “ Sexual agglutination in Chlamydomonas ” . In Algal Development , Edited by: Wiessner , W. , Robinson , D.G. and Starr , R.C. 83 – 89 . Berlin : Springer-Verlag . In
  • Ngan , Y. and Price , I.R. 1979 . Systematic significance of spore size in the Florideophyceae (Rhodophyta) . Br. phycol. J. , 14 : 285 – 303 .
  • Norton , T.A. 1980 . Sink, swim or stick: the fate of Sargassum muticum propagules . Br. phycol. J. , 15 : 197 – 198 .
  • Norton , T.A. 1991 . Algal dispersal . J. Phycol. , 27 : 53 – 53 . (Suppl.)
  • Okuda , T. and Neushul , M. 1981 . Sedimentation studies on red algal spores . J. Phycol. , 17 : 113 – 118 .
  • Oliveira , L. , Walker , D.C. and Bisalputra , T. 1980 . Ultrastructural, cytochemical and enzymatic studies on the adhesive “plaques” of the brown alga Laminaria saccharina (L.) Lamour. and Nereocystis luetkeana (Nert.) Post. et Rupr . Protoplasma , 104 : 1 – 15 .
  • Peyrière , M. 1970 . Evolution de l'appareil de Golgi au cours de la tétrasporogenèse de Griffithsia flosculosa (Rhodophycée) . C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, Sér D. , 270 : 2071 – 2074 .
  • Phillips , J.A. 1988 . Field, anatomical and developmental studies on southern Australian species of Ulva (Ulvaceae, Chlorophyta) . Aust. Syst. Bot. , 1 : 411 – 456 .
  • Phillips , J.A. and Clayton , M.N. 1991 . Biflagellate spermatozoids and motile spores in the Dictyotales (Phaeophyceae) . J. Phycol. , 27 : 58 – 58 . (suppl.)
  • Phillips , J.A. , Clayton , M.N. , Maier , I. , Boland , W. and Müller , D.G. 1990 . Sexual reproduction in Dictyota diemensis Kuetzing (Dictyotales, Phaeophyta) . Phycologia , 29 : 367 – 379 .
  • Prud'Homme van Reine , W.F. 1982 . A taxonomic revision of the European Sphacelariaceae (Sphacelariales, Phaeophyceae) , Leiden : E. J. Brill, Leiden University Press .
  • Pueschel , C.M. 1979 . Ultrastructure of tetrasporogenesis in Palmaria palmata (Rhodophyta) . J. Phycol. , 15 : 409 – 424 .
  • Pueschel , C.M. 1990 . “ Cell Structure ” . In Biology of the Red Algae , Edited by: Cole , K.M. and Sheath , R.G. 7 – 41 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . In
  • Pueschel , C.M. and Cole , K.M. 1985 . Ultrastructure of germinating carpospores of Porphyra variegata (Kjellm.) Hus (Bangiales, Rhodophyta) . J. Phycol. , 21 : 146 – 154 .
  • Quader , H. 1990 . Formation and disintegration of cisternae of the endoplasmic reticulum visualized in live cells by conventional fluorescence and confocal laser scanning microscopy: evidence for the involvement of calcium and the cytoskelton . Protoplasma , 155 : 166 – 175 .
  • Quatrano , R.S. and Stevens , P.T. 1976 . Cell wall assembly in Fucus zygotes I. Characterization of the polysaccharide components . Pl. Physiol. , 58 : 224 – 231 .
  • Quatrano , R.S. , Griffing , L.R. , Huber-Walchi , V. and Doubet , R.S. 1985 . Cytological and biochemical requirements for the establishment of a polar cell . J. Cell Sci. Suppl. , 2 : 129 – 141 .
  • Ramon , E. 1973 . Germination and attachment of zygotes of Himanthalia elongata (L.) S. F. Gray . J. Phycol. , 9 : 445 – 449 .
  • Reed , D.C. , Laur , D.R. and Ebeling , A.W. 1988 . Variation in algal dispersal and recruitment: the importance of episodic events . Ecol. Monogr. , 58 : 321 – 335 .
  • Salisbury , J.L. 1989 . Centrin and the algal flagellar apparatus . J. Phycol. , 25 : 201 – 206 .
  • Schulze , D. , Robenek , H. , McFadden , G.I. and Melkonian , M. 1987 . Immunolocalization of a Ca2+-modulated contractile protein in the flagellar apparatus of green algae: the nucleusbasal body connector . European J. Cell Biol. , 45 : 51 – 61 .
  • Scott , J. 1984 . Electron microscope contributions to red algal phylogeny . J. Phycol. , 20 : 6 – 6 . (Suppl.)
  • Sleigh , M.A. 1981 . Flagellar beat patterns and their possible evolution . BioSystems , 14 : 423 – 431 .
  • Steinberg , P.D. 1985 . Feeding preferences of Tegula funebralis and chemical defenses of marine brown algae . Ecol. Monogr. , 55 : 333 – 349 .
  • Steinberg , P.D. 1988 . Effects of quantitative and qualitative variation in phenolic compounds on feeding in three species of marine herbivores . J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. , 120 : 221 – 237 .
  • Suto , S. 1950 . Studies on the shedding, swimming and fixing of the spores of seaweeds . Bull. Jpn Soc. Fish. , 16 : 1 – 9 .
  • Swanson , J.A. and Floyd , G.L. 1978 . Fine structure of the zoospores and thallus of Blidingia minima . Trans. Amer. Micros. Soc. , 97 : 549 – 558 .
  • Toth , R. 1976 . A mechanism of propagule release from unilocular reproductive structures in brown algae . Protoplasma , 89 : 263 – 278 .
  • Tsekos , I. 1981 . Growth and differentiation of the Golgi apparatus and wall formation during carposporogenesis in the red alga, Gigartina teedii (Roth) Lamour . J. Cell Sci. , 52 : 71 – 84 .
  • Tsekos , I. 1983 . The ultrastructure of carposporogenesis in Gigartina teedii (Roth) Lamour. (Gigartinales, Rhodophyceae): Gonimoblast cells and carpospores . Flora , 174 : 191 – 211 .
  • Tsekos , I. 1985 . The endomembrane system of differentiating carposporangia in the red alga Chondria tenuissima: occurrence and participation in secretion of polysaccharide and proteinaceous substances . Protoplasma , 129 : 127 – 136 .
  • Tsekos , I. and Schnepf , E. 1985 . Ultrastructure of the early stages of carposporophyte development in the red alga Chondria tenuissima (Rhodomelaceae, Ceramiales) . Pl. Syst. Evol. , 151 : 1 – 18 .
  • Tveter , E. and Mathieson , A.C. 1976 . Sporeling coalescence in Chondrus crispus (Rhodophyceae) . J. Phycol. , 12 : 110 – 118 .
  • Van den Hoek , C. 1978 . Algen , Stuttgart : Georg Thieme Verlag .
  • Van der Meer , J.P. 1977 . Genetics of Gracilaria sp. (Rhodophyceae, Gigartinales) II. The life history and genetic implications of cytokinetic failure during tetraspore formation . Phycologia , 16 : 367 – 371 .
  • Vesk , M. and Borowitzka , M.A. 1984 . Ultrastructure of tetrasporogenesis in the coralline alga Haliptilon cuvieri (Rhodophyta) . J. Phycol , 20 : 501 – 515 .
  • Waaland , J.R. and Dickson , L.G. 1983 . Photoperiodic control of conchospore maturation and release in Porphyra abbottae and Porphyra perforata (Rhodophyta) . J. Phycol. , 19 : 6 – 6 . (Suppl.)
  • Wetherbee , R. 1978 . The presence of tubular plasmalemmal structures during carposporogenesis in the red alga Polysiphonia . Protoplasma , 94 : 341 – 345 .
  • Wetherbee , R. and West , J.A. 1977 . Golgi apparatus of unique morphology during early carposporogenesis in a red alga . J. Ultrastruct. Res. , 58 : 119 – 133 .
  • Whitaker , D.M. 1931 . Some observations on the eggs of Fucus and upon their mutual influence in the determination of the developmental axis . Biol. Bull. , 61 : 294 – 308 .
  • Zechman , F.W. and Mathieson , A.C. 1985 . The distribution of seaweed propagules in estuarine, coastal and offshore waters of New Hampshire, U.S.A. . Botanica mar. , 28 : 283 – 294 .

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.