The influence of stocking density on behaviour, health, and production in commercial fattening turkeys - a review

References

• Bartels, T., R. A. Stuhrmann, E. T. Krause, and L. Schrader. 2020. “Research Note: Injurious Pecking in Fattening Turkeys (Meleagris Gallopavo F. Dom.)—video Analyses of Triggering Factors and Behavioral Sequences in Small Flocks of Male Turkeys.” Poultry Science 99 (12): 6326–6331. doi:10.1016/j.psj.2020.09.016.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartz, B. M., K. A. Anderson, E. O. Oviedo-Rondón, K. Livingtson, and J. L. Grimes. 2020. “Effects of Stocking Density on Large White, Commercial Tom Turkeys Reared to 20 Weeks of Age: 1. Growth and Performance.” Poultry Science 99 (11): 5582–5586. doi:10.1016/j.psj.2020.08.024.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beaulac, K., H. L. Classen, S. Gomis, K. S. Sakamoto, T. G. Crowe, and K. Schwean-Lardner. 2019. “The Effects of Stocking Density on Turkey Tom Performance and Environment to 16 Weeks of Age.” Poultry Science 98 (7): 2846–2857. doi:10.3382/ps/pez087.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beaulac, K., and K. Schwean-Lardner. 2018. “Assessing the Effects of Stocking Density on Turkey Tom Health and Welfare to 16 Weeks of Age.” Frontiers in Veterinary Science 5: 213. doi:10.3389/fvets.2018.00213.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berk, J. 2021. “Faustzahlen zur Haltung von Mastgeflügel.” Gefluegeljahrbuch 2021, 166–187. Stuttgart, Germany: Ulmer Verlag.
   Google Scholar
• Berk, J., and G. Hahn. 2000. “Aspects of Animal Behaviour and Product Quality of Fattening Turkeys Influenced by Modified Husbandry.” Archives Animal Breeding 43: 189–195.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berk, J., and T. Hinz. 2002. “Behaviour and Welfare of Tom Turkeys under Enriched Husbandry Conditions.” Annals of Animal Science 1: 35–37.
   Google Scholar
• Berk, J., E. Stehle, and T. Bartels. 2017. “Enrichment Device - a Way to Reduce Injurious Pecking in Fattening Turkeys with Intact Beaks?.” Berliner und Münchener Tierärztliche Wochenschrift 130 (5/6): 230–240.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bessei, W. 1999. “Das Verhalten von Mastputen – Literaturübersicht.” Archiv für Geflügelkunde 63 (2): 45–51.
   Google Scholar
• Bessei, W., and P. Günther. 2005. “The Behavior of Turkeys in Response to Increasing Stocking Density and to Different Litter Material.” Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium on Turkey Diseases, Berlin, Germany: Mensch-und-Buch-Publishing. 90–100
   Google Scholar
• Bircher, L., H. Hirt, and H. Oester. 1996. “Provision of Perches for Intensively-reared Turkeys.” Aktuelle Arbeiten zur artgemäßen Tierhaltung, KTBL Schrift, Darmstadt 373: 169–177.
   Google Scholar
• Bircher, L., and P. Schlup 1991a. Final report: “Das Verhalten von Truten eines Bauernschlages unter naturnahen Haltungsbedingungen.” Bundesamt Veterinärwesen, Switzerland, Part 1.
   Google Scholar
• Bircher, L., and P. Schlup 1991b. Final report: “Ethologische Indikatoren zur Beurteilung der Tiergerechtheit von Trutenmastsystemen.” Bundesamt Veterinärwesen, Switzerland, Part 2.
   Google Scholar
• Buchwalder, T., and B. Huber-Eicher. 2003. “A Brief Report on Aggressive Interactions within and between Groups of Domestic Turkeys (Meleagris Gallopavo).” Applied Animal Behaviour Science 84 (1): 75–80. doi:10.1016/S0168-1591(03)00149-7.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buchwalder, T., and B. Huber-Eicher. 2004. “Effect of Increased Floor Space on Aggressive Behaviour in Male Turkeys (Meleagris Gallopavo).” Applied Animal Behaviour Science 89 (3–4): 207–214. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2004.07.001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buchwalder, T., and B. Huber-Eicher. 2005. “Effect of Group Size on Aggressive Reactions to an Introduced Conspecific in Groups of Domestic Turkeys (Meleagris Gallopavo).” Applied Animal Behaviour Science 93 (3–4): 251–258. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2004.11.020.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cathey, J., K. Melton, J. Dreibelbis, B. Cavney, S. Locke, S. DeMaso, W. T. Schwertner, and B. Collier 2007. “Rio Grande Wild Turkey in Texas: Biology and Management.” Texas Farmer Collection.
   Google Scholar
• Cottin, E. 2004. “Einfluss von angereicherter Haltungsumwelt und Herkunft auf Leistung, Verhalten, Gefiederzustand, Beinstellung, Lauffähigkeit und Tibiale Dyschondroplasie bei männlichen Mastputen.” PhD dissertation. University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Germany.
   Google Scholar
• Crowe, R., and J. Forbes. 1999. “Effects of Four Different Environmental Enrichment Treatments on Pecking Behaviour in Turkeys.” British Poultry Science 40 (S1): 11–12. doi:10.1080/00071669986558.
   Google Scholar
• D’Eath, R. B., and L. J. Keeling. 2003. “Social Discrimination and Aggression by Laying Hens in Large Groups: From Peck Orders to Social Tolerance.” Applied Animal Behaviour Science 84 (3): 197–212. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2003.08.010.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dalton, H., B. Wood, and S. Torrey. 2013. “Injurious Pecking in Domestic Turkeys: Development, Causes, and Potential Solutions.” World’s Poultry Science Journal 69 (4): 865–876. doi:10.1017/S004393391300086X.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Damme. 2021. “Faustzahlen zur Betriebswirtschaft.” Gefluegeljahrbuch 2021, 68. Stuttgart, Germany: Ulmer Verlag.
   Google Scholar
• DEFRA. 2019. “Department for Environment Food & Rural Affairs. Guidance Turkeys: Welfare Recommendations”. accessed 12 October 2020. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/poultry-on-farm-welfare/turkeys-welfare-recommendations.
   Google Scholar
• Dillier, R. M. 1991. Final report: “Ethologische Indikatoren zur Beurteilung der Tiergerechtheit intensiver Aufzuchthaltungen für die Mastproduktion von Truten.” BVET, Bern, Switzerland.
   Google Scholar
• Duggan, G., T. Widowski, M. Quinton, and S. Torrey. 2014. “The Development of Injurious Pecking in a Commercial Turkey Facility.” Journal of Applied Poultry Research 23 (2): 280–290. doi:10.3382/japr.2013-00860.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duncan, I. J. H., E. R. Beatty, P. M. Hocking, and S. R. I. Duff. 1991. “Assessment of Pain Associated with Degenerative Hip Disorders in Adult Male Turkeys.” Research in Veterinary Science 50 (2): 200–203. doi:10.1016/0034-5288(91)90106-X.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellerbrock, S. 2000. “Beurteilung verschiedener Besatzdichten in der intensiven Putenmast unter besonderer Berücksichtigung ethologischer und gesundheitlicher Aspekte.” PhD dissertation. University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Germany.
   Google Scholar
• Ellerbrock, S., and U. Knierim. 2002. “Static Space Requirements of Male Meat Turkeys.” Veterinary Records 151 (2): 54–57. doi:10.1136/vr.151.2.54.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellerich, R. 2012. “Prävalenz von Veränderungen der Haut und ihrer Anhangsorgane bei Mastputen.” PhD dissertation. Leipzig University, Germany.
   Google Scholar
• Erasmus, M. A. 2017. “A Review of the Effects of Stocking Density on Turkey Behavior, Welfare, and Productivity.” Poultry Science 96 (8): 2540–2545. doi:10.3382/ps/pex075.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• EU Regulation (EU) 2018/848 of 30 May 2018 on Organic Production and Labeling of Organic Products and Repealing Council Regulation (EC) No. 834/2007 ( OJ No. 150 of June 14, 2018).
   Google Scholar
• Farm Animal Welfare Council (FAWC). 1995. “Report on the Welfare of Turkeys.” Tolworth Tower, Surbiton, Surrey KT6 7DX, UK.
   Google Scholar
• Ferrante, V., S. Lolli, L. Ferrari, T. Watanabe, C. Tremolada, J. Marchewka, and I. Estevez. 2019. “Differences in Prevalence of Welfare Indicators in Male and Female Turkey Flocks (Meleagris Gallopavo).” Poultry Science 98 (4): 1568–1574. doi:10.3382/ps/pey534.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 2010. “Regulation on Minimum Conditions of Keeping Certain Species of Livestock.” accessed 11 December 2021. http://www.fao.org/faolex/results/details/en/c/LEX-FAOC113714.
   Google Scholar
• Freihold, D., T. Bartels, S. Bergmann, J. Berk, F. Deerberg, A. Dressel, M. Erhard, et al. 2018. “Investigation of the Prevalence and Severity of Footpad Dermatitis at the Slaughterhouse in Fattening Turkeys Reared in Organic Production Systems in Germany.” Poultry Science 98 (4): 1559–1567. doi:10.3382/ps/pey473.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• German Animal Welfare Association (Deutscher Tierschutzbund) for Turkeys. 2020. accessed 25 October 2020. http://www.tierschutzbund.de
   Google Scholar
• German Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection. 2021. accessed 27 May 2021. https://www.bmel.de/DE/themen/tiere/nutztiere/gefluegel/gefluegel.html
   Google Scholar
• Graue, J., H. Glawatz, and H. Meyer. 2013. “Area Coverage of B.U.T. 6 Commercial Males Determined by Planimetric Analyses.” Abstracts of the 7th Hafez International Symposium on Turkey Production Meeting of the Working Group 10 (Turkey): 66–68.
   Google Scholar
• Hafez, H. M. 1996. “Übersicht über Probleme der haltungs- und zuchtbedingten Erkrankungen bei Mastputen.” Archiv Gefluegelkunde 60 (6): 249–256.
   Google Scholar
• Hafez, H. M., N. Hagen, and T. S. Allam. 2016. “Influence of Stocking Density on Health Condition in Meat Turkey Flocks under Field Conditions.” Pakistan Veterinary Journal 36: 134–139.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hafez, H. M., M. Rudolph, S. Haase, R. Hauck, K.-P. Behr, V. Bergmann, and R. Günther. 2005. “Influence of Stocking Density and Litter Material on the Incidence of Pododermatitis of Turkeys.” Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium on Turkey Diseases, Berlin, Germany: Mensch-und-Buch-Publishing: 101–109.
   Google Scholar
• Healy, W. 1992. “Behaviour.” In The Wild Turkey – Biology and Management, edited by J. G. Dickson, 46–65. Mechaniesburg: Stackpole Books.
   Google Scholar
• Hocking, P. M., C. E. Channing, G. W. Robertson, A. Edmond, and R. B. Jones. 2004. “Between Breed Genetic Variation for Welfare-related Behavioural Traits in Domestic Fowl.” Applied Animal Behaviour Science 89 (1–2): 85–105. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2004.03.014.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jankowski, J., D. Mikulski, M. R. Tatara, and W. Krupski. 2015. “Effects of Increased Stocking Density and Heat Stress on Growth, Performance, Carcass Characteristics and Skeletal Properties in Turkeys.” Veterinary Records 176 (1): 21–26. doi:10.1136/vr.102216.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, T. A., and J. Berk. 2012. “Alternative Systems for Meat Chickens and Turkeys: Production, Health and Welfare.” Proceedings of the 30th Poultry Science Symposium. Glasgow, Scotland. 250–296.
   Google Scholar
• Krautwald-Junghanns, M.-E., L. Cuta, and J. Sirovnik. 2021. “Aspects to Improve Animal Welfare in Fattening Turkeys: Structure and Occupational Material.” Tierärztliche Praxis, G 49: 413–424.
   Google Scholar
• Krautwald-Junghanns, M.-E., R. Ellerich, J. Böhme, K. Cramer, A. Della Volpe, H. Mitterer-Istyagin, M. Ludewig, et al. 2009b. “Examination of Rearing Standards and Health Status in Turkeys in Germany.” Berliner und Münchner Tierärztliche Wochenschrift 122 (7–8): 271–283.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krautwald-Junghanns, M.-E., R. Ellerich, H. Mitterer-Istyagin, M. Ludewig, K. Fehlhaber, E. Schuster, J. Berk, et al. 2011. “Untersuchungen zur Prävalenz von Hautverletzungen bei schnabelkupierten Mastputen.” Berliner und Münchner Tierärztliche Wochenschrift 9 (1–2): 8–16.
   Google Scholar
• Krautwald-Junghanns, M.-E., M. H. Erhard, T. Bartels, S. Bergmann, N. Ziegler, C. Schweizer, and S. Brandl 2012. Final report: “Abschlussbericht zum Forschungsauftrag Indikatoren einer tiergerechten Mastputenhaltung in der Aufzuchtphase.” BLE:1–156. accessed 29 November 2021. https://service.ble.de/ptdb/index2.php?detail_id=22895&site_key=141&tKat=6004&zeilenzahl_zaehler=167&NextRow=100.
   Google Scholar
• Krautwald-Junghanns, M.-E., K. Fehlhaber, T. Bartels, J. Böhme, K. Cramer, A. Della Volpe, R. Ellerich, M. Ludewig, H. Mitterer-Istyagin, and S. Seelbach 2009a. Final report: “Abschlussbericht zum Forschungsauftrag Indikatoren einer tiergerechten Mastputenhaltung.” BLE: 1-176. accessed 10 December 2020. https://orgprints.org/34305/1/34305-12OE030-uni-leipzig-krautwald_junghanns-2017-mastputen.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Krautwald-Junghanns, M.-E., and J. Sirovnik 2021. “Requirements for Housing Conditions of Modern Fattening Turkeys in Conformity with Animal Welfare Standards - Expert Opinion.” accessed 10 December 2021. https://www.sozialministerium.at/dam/jcr:616a295d-ab43-45c7-8d2e-9b61103fbb2d/Requirements%20for%20Turkey%20Husbandry%20in%20Compliance%20with%20Current%20Animal%20Welfare%20Principles.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Kulke, K., C. Habig, N. Kemper, and B. Spindler 2014. Final report: “Untersuchungen zum Vorkommen von Kannibalismus bei nicht schnabelgekürzten Putenhähnen bei unterschiedlichen Besatzdichten.” Institute for Animal Hygiene, Animal Welfare and Farm Animal behaviour, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Germany. 51. accessed 29 November 2021. https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwj376bi_6P0AhXjRvEDHdZ3ACoQFnoECAMQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ml.niedersachsen.de%2Fdownload%2F94265%2FAbschlussbericht_Besatzdichte_Puten_Ruthe.pdf&usg=AOvVaw03IZuurB0s__nB4iKuS9hU.
   Google Scholar
• Kulke, K., B. Spindler, M. Beyerbach, S. Freytag, C. Habig, and N. Kemper. 2017. “Planimetrische Untersuchungen bei Putenhähnen der Linie B.U.T. 6 in der Aufzucht- und Mastperiode.” Berliner und Münchner Tierärztliche Wochenschrift 130 (5): 266–272.
   Google Scholar
• Lindenwald, R., H. J. Schuberth, B. Spindler, and S. Rautenschlein. 2021. “Influence of Environmental Enrichment on Circulating White Blood Cell Counts and Behavior of Female Turkeys.” Poultry Science 100 (9): 101360. doi:10.1016/j.psj.2021.101360.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martrenchar, A. 1999. “Animal Welfare and Intensive Production of Turkey Broilers.” Worlds Poultry Science Journal 55 (2): 143–152. doi:10.1079/WPS19990010.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martrenchar, A., D. Huonnic, and J. P. Cotte. 2001. “Influence of Environmental Enrichment on Injurious Pecking and Perching Behaviour in Young Turkeys.” British Poultry Science 42 (2): 161–170. doi:10.1080/00071660120048393.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martrenchar, A., D. Huonnic, J. P. Cotte, E. Boilletot, and J. P. Morisse. 1999. “Influence of Stocking Density on Behavioural, Health and Productivity Traits of Turkeys in Large Flocks.” British Poultry Science 40 (3): 323–331. doi:10.1080/00071669987403.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noble, D. O., J. W. Anderson, and K. E. Nestor. 1996b. “Range and Confinement Rearing of Four Genetic Lines of Turkeys.: 2. Effects on Behavior and Tonic Immobility.” Poultry Science 75 (2): 165–171. doi:10.3382/ps.0750165.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noble, D. O., K. E. Nestor, and C. R. Polley. 1996a. “Range and Confinement Rearing of Four Genetic Lines of Turkeys. 1. Effects on Growth, Mortality, and Walking Ability.” Poultry Science 75 (2): 160–164. doi:10.3382/ps.0750160.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noll, S. L., M. Halawani, P. Waibel, P. Redig, and K. Janni. 1991. “Effect of Diet and Population Density on Male Turkeys under Various Environmental Conditions: 1. Turkey Growth and Health Performance.” Poultry Science 70 (4): 923–934. doi:10.3382/ps.0700923.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perkins, S., M. Zuidhof, J. Feddes, and F. Robinson. 1995. “Effect of Stocking Density on Air Quality and Health and Performance of Heavy Tom Turkeys.” Canadian Agricultural Engineering 37 (2): 109–112.
   Google Scholar
• RSPCA, Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. 2017. “RSPCA Welfare Standards for Turkeys.” 1898331 80 4.
   Google Scholar
• Rudolf, M. 2008. “Einfluss von Besatzdichte und Einstreumaterial auf die Pododermatitis bei Mastputen.” PhD dissertation. Free University of Berlin. accessed 29 November 2021. https://d-nb.info/1023096811/34.
   Google Scholar
• Savory, C. J. 1995. “Feather Pecking and Cannibalism.” World’s Poultry Science Journal 51 (2): 215–219. doi:10.1079/WPS19950016.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schlup, P., L. Bircher, and M. Stauffacher. 1990. “Auswirkungen von Zucht und Haltung auf die Entwicklung des Fortbewegungsverhaltens von Hochleistungsputen (Meleagris gallopavo ssp.).” Aktuelle Arbeiten zur artgemäßen Tierhaltung, KTBL-Schrift, Darmstadt 344: 47–59.
   Google Scholar
• Sherwin, C. M., and C. L. Devereux. 1999b. “Preliminary Investigations of Ultraviolet Induced Markings on Domestic Turkey Chicks and a Possible Role in Injurious Pecking.” British Poultry Science 40 (4): 429–433. doi:10.1080/00071669987151.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sherwin, C. M., and A. Kelland. 1998a. “Light Intensity Preferences of Domestic Male Turkeys.” Applied Animal Behaviour Science 58 (1–2): 121–130. doi:10.1016/S0168-1591(97)00138-X.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sherwin, C. M., and A. Kelland. 1998b. “Time Budgets, Comfort Behaviours and Injurious Pecking of Turkeys Housed in Pairs.” British Poultry Science 39 (3): 325–332. doi:10.1080/00071669888854.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sherwin, C. M., P. D. Lewis, and G. C. Perry. 1999c. “Effects of Environmental Enrichment, Fluorescent and Intermittent Lighting on Injurious Pecking Amongst Male Turkey Poults.” British Poultry Science 40 (5): 592–598. doi:10.1080/00071669986954.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spindler, B., M. F. Giersberg, A. Briese, N. Kemper, and J. Hartung. 2016. “Spatial Requirements of Poultry by Using a Colour-contrast Method (Kobaplan).” British Poultry Science 57 (1): 23–33. doi:10.1080/00071668.2015.1127894.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spindler, B., J. Hartung, C. Habig, and J. Berk 2013. Final report: “Gegenwärtige Management- und Haltungsbedingungen bei nicht schnabelgekürzten Puten in der ökologischen Haltung.” Stiftung Tierärztliche Hochschule Hannover, Institut für Tierhygiene, Tierschutz und Nutztierethologie. accessed 29 November 2021. https://www.ml.niedersachsen.de/download/91517/Abschlussbericht_Management-_und_Haltungsbedingungen_bei_unkupierten_Oekoputen.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Standing Committee of the European Convention for the Protection of Animals. 2001. “European Convention for the Protection of Animals kept for Agriculture - Recommendation with regard to turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo ssp.).” accessed 29 November 2021. https://www.coe.int/t/e/legal_affairs/legal_cooperation/biological_safety_and_use_of_animals/farming/Rec%20Turkeys.asp.
   Google Scholar
• Strassmeier, P. 2007. “Einfluss von Strukturelementen, Futterzusammensetzung und Witterung auf das Verhalten von gemischt gehaltenen BIG SIX und Kelly Bronze Puten in der Auslaufhaltung.” PhD dissertation, University of Munich. accessed 6 December 2021. https://d-nb.info/985546042/34.
   Google Scholar
• van der Peet, G., F. Leenstra, I. Vermeij, N. Bondt, L. Puister, and J. van Os. 2018. Report: “Feiten En Cijfers over de Nederlandse Veehouderijsectoren.” Wageningen Livestock Research rapport; No. 1134. Wageningen, Netherlands: Wageningen Livestock Research. doi:10.18174/464128.
   Google Scholar
• Wartemann, S. 2005. “Tierverhalten und Stallluftqualität in einem Putenmaststall mit Außenklimabereich unter Berücksichtigung von Tiergesundheit, Leistungsmerkmalen und Wirtschaftlichkeit.” PhD dissertation. University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover. accessed 29 November 2021. https://d-nb.info/976927276/34.
   Google Scholar
• Watts, C., and A. Stokes. 1971. “The Social Order of Turkeys.” Scientific American 224 (6): 112–119.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zuidhof, M. J., J. J. R. Feddes, and F. E. Robinson. 1993. “Effect of Ventilation Rate and Stocking Density on Turkey Health and Performance.” Journal of Applied Poultry Research 2 (2): 123–129. doi:10.1093/japr/2.2.123.
   Google Scholar