SPONTANEOUS IGNITION OF PRESSURIZED RELEASES OF HYDROGEN AND NATURAL GAS INTO AIR

REFERENCES

• Alcock , J.L. , Shirvill , L.C. , and Cracknell , R.F. ( 2001 ) Compilation of Existing Safety Data on Hydrogen and Comparative Fuels . Report EIHP 2, Fifth Framework Programme (1998–2002) , Shell Global Solutions .
   Google Scholar
• Alpert , J.Y. and Homer , C.J. ( 2005 ) Shock Induced Auto-Ignition of Previously Unmixed Hydrogen/Air Mixtures . Undergraduate Senior Thesis, Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering , Princeton University , Princeton , NJ .
   Google Scholar
• Ames Aeronautical Laboratory ( 1953 ) Equations, Tables, and Charts for Compressible Flow . Report 1135 , Ames Aeronautical Laboratory , Moffett Field , CA .
   Google Scholar
• Argonne National Laboratory ( 2004 ) Basic Research Needs for the Hydrogen Economy . Report on the Basic Energy Sciences Workshop on hydrogen production, storage, and use , U.S. Department of Energy , Washington , DC . [Online] Available: http://www.sc.doe.gov/bes/reports/files/NHE_rpt.pdf [1 July 2005] .
   Google Scholar
• Astbury , G.R. and Hawksworth , S.J. ( 2005 ) Spontaneous ignition of hydrogen leaks: a review of postulated mechanisms . International Conference on Hydrogen Safety , Pisa , Italy .
   Google Scholar
• Bartenev , A.M. , Komik , S.V. , Gelfand , B.E. , Gronig , H. , and Oliver , H. ( 2001 ) Effect of reflection type on detonation initiation at shock-wave focusing . Shock Waves , 10 , 205 – 215 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berman , M. ( 1986 ) A critical review of recent large-scale experiments on hydrogen/air detonations . Nucl. Sci. Eng. , 93 , 321 – 347 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blumenthal , R. , Fieweger , K. , Komp , K.H. , and Adomeit , G. ( 1996 ) Gas dynamic features of self ignition of non diluted fuel/air mixtures at high pressure . Combust. Sci. Technol. , 113 , 137 – 166 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bond , J. ( 1991 ) Sources of Ignition: Flammability Characteristics of Chemicals and Products , Butterworths-Heinemann Ltd. , Oxford , p. 52 .
   Google Scholar
• Brouillette , M. ( 2002 ) The Richtmyer–Meshkov instability . Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech , 34 , 445 – 468 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• California Hydrogen Highway ( 2004 ) Hydrogen Use and Safety [Online]. Available: http://www.hydrogenhighway.ca.gov/hysafety/hysafety.htm [18 May 2005] .
   Google Scholar
• Chaineaux , G. , Mavrothalassitis , G. , and Pineau , J. ( 1990 ) Modelization and validation tests of the discharge in air of a vessel pressurized by a flammable gas . In et al. . (Eds.) Dynamics of Detonations and Explosions: Explosion Phenomena , Prog. Astronaut. Aeronaut., Vol. 134 , pp. 104 – 137
   Google Scholar
• Compressed Gas Association ( 2004 ) Hydrogen Vent Systems , 2nd , ed. CGA G-5.5 .
   Google Scholar
• Edeskuty , F.J. and Stewart , W.F. ( 1996 ) Safety in the Handling of Cryogenic Fluids. Plenum Publishing Corporation , New York , Chapter 7 .
   Google Scholar
• Erez , L. , Sadot , O. , Oron , D. , Erez , G. , Levin , L.A. , Sharvts , D. , and Ben-Dor , G. (2000) Study of the membrane effect on turbulent mixing measurements in shock tubes. Shock Waves , 10, 241–251.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eubank , C.S. , Rabinowitz , M.J. , Gardiner , W.C. Jr., and Zellner , R.E. ( 1981 ) Shock-Initiated Ignition of Natural Gas-Air Mixtures . Proc. Combust. Instit. , 18 , 1767 – 1774 .
   Google Scholar
• Fay , J.A. and Lekawa , E. ( 1956 ) Ignition of combustible gases by converging shock waves . J. Appl. Phys. , 27 , 261 – 266 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischer , M. ( 1986 ) Safety aspects of hydrogen combustion in hydrogen energy systems . Int. J. Hydrogen Energ. , 11 , 593 – 601 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fuels and Combustion Research Laboratory (2005) [Online]. Available: http://www.princeton.edu/~combust/ [5 August 2005] .
   Google Scholar
• Gelfand , B.E. , Komik , S.V. , Bartenev , A.M. , Medvedev , S.P. , Gronig, H, and Olivier , H. ( 2000 ) Detonation and deflagration initiation at the focusing of shock waves in combustible gas mixtures . Shock Waves , 10 , 197 – 204 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gregory , D.P. and Pangborn , J.B. ( 1976 ) Hydrogen energy . Annu. Rev. Energy , 1 , 279 – 310 .
   Google Scholar
• Hord , J. ( 1978 ) Is hydrogen a safe fuel? Int. J. Hydrogen Energ ., 3 , 157 – 176 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Houf , W.G. and Schefer , R.W. ( 2004 ) Determination of separation distances from large-scale hydrogen releases . International Code Council (ICC) Hydrogen Ad Hoc Committee Meeting , Coral Gables , FL .
   Google Scholar
• Huang , J , Hill , P.G. , Bushe , W.K. , and Munshi , S.R. ( 2004 ) Shock-tube study of methane ignition under engine-relevant conditions: experiments and modeling . Combust. Flame , 136 , 25 – 42 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• INGAA Foundation (2004) An updated assessment of pipeline and storage infrastructure for the North American gas market: adverse consequences of delays in the construction of natural gas infrastructure . Report F-2004-01 , Energy and Environmental Analysis, Inc. , Arlington , VA .
   Google Scholar
• Jiang , Z. , Takayama , K. , Babinsky , H. , and Meguro , T. ( 1997 ) Transient shock wave flows in tubes with a sudden change in cross section . Shock Waves , 7 , 151 – 162 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaltayev , A. , Leblanc , J.E. , and Fujiwara , T. ( 1999 ) Influence of turbulence on the deflagration to detonation transition in a tube . Proceedings from the 17th International Colloquium on the Dynamics of Explosions and Reactive Systems , Heidelberg , Germany .
   Google Scholar
• Kruse , B. , Grinna , S. , and Buch , C. ( 2002 ) Hydrogen-Status and Possibilities . [Online]. Available: http://www.bellona.no/data/f/0/26/97/0 9811 1/Hydrogen 6-2002.pdf [15 May 2005] .
   Google Scholar
• Lewis , B. and von Elbe , G. ( 1987 ) Combustion Flames and Explosions of Gases . Academic Press , New York .
   Google Scholar
• Li , J. , Zhao , Z. , Kazakov , A. , and Dryer , F.L. ( 2004 ) An updated comprehensive kinetic model of hydrogen combustion . Int. J. Chem. Kinet. , 36 , 566 – 575 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liñán , A. and Crespo , A. ( 1976 ) An asymptotic analysis of unsteady diffusion flames for large activation energies . Combust. Sci. Tech. , 14 , 95 – 117 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu , Y.-F. , Sato , H. , Tsuboi , N. , Hjigashino , F. , and Hayashi , A.K. ( 2006 ) Numerical simulation on hydrogen fuel jetting from high pressure tank . Sci. Tech. Energ. Mater ., 67 , 7 – 11 .
   Google Scholar
• Lutz , A.E. , Kee , R.J. , and Miller , J.A. (1987) SENKIN: a Fortran program for predicting homogeneous gas phase chemical kinetics with sensitivity analysis , Report SAND87-8248, Sandia National Laboratories , Albuquerque , NM.
   Google Scholar
• National Hydrogen Association ( 2005 ) Hydrogen fact sheet 1.008. [Online]. Available: http://www.hydrogenassociation.org/H2-Safety-Fact-Sheet.pdf [l3 April 2005] .
   Google Scholar
• National Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Codes and Standards Coordinating Committee ( 2005 ). [Online] Available: http://www.hydrogenandfuelcellsafety.info/ [20 September 2005] .
   Google Scholar
• National Research Council ( 1995 ) Prudent Practices in the Laboratory: Handling and Disposal of Chemicals . National Academy Press , Washington , DC , p. 123 .
   Google Scholar
• NaturalGas.org. ( 2004 ) The Transportation of Natural Gas. [Online]. Available: http://www.natural gas.org/naturalgas/transport.asp [14 July 2005] .
   Google Scholar
• NFPA ( 2005 ) NFPA 55: Standard for Storage, Use, and Handling of Compressed Gases and Cryogenic Fluids in Portable and Stationary Containers, Cylinders, and Tanks . National Fire Protection Association , Quincy , MA .
   Google Scholar
• NFPA. Hydrogen Safety Symposium 2005 . NFPA World Safety Conference & Exposition , Mandalay Bay Resort & Convention Center Las Vegas , NV , June 6–7 , 2005 .
   Google Scholar
• Rifkin , J. ( 2002 ) The Hydrogen Economy , Penguin Putnam Inc. , New York .
   Google Scholar
• Schefer , R.W. , Houf , W.G. , Bourne , B. , and Colton , J. ( 2004 ) Turbulent hydrogen-jet flame characterization . Int. J. Hydrogen Energ ., submitted .
   Google Scholar
• Schefer , R.W. , Houf , W.G. , Moen , C.D. , Chan , J.P. , Maness , M.A. , Keller , J.O. , Leon , M.V. and Tarn , R. ( 2004 ) Hydrogen Codes and Standards Unintended Release Workshop . Sandia National Laboratories , Livermore , CA .
   Google Scholar
• Shapiro , A.H. ( 1954 ) The Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Compressible Fluid Flow . The Ronald Press Company , New York .
   Google Scholar
• Shinnar , R. ( 2003 ) The hydrogen economy, fuel cells and electric cars . Technol. Soc. , 25 , 455 – 476 .
   Google Scholar
• Sidorov , V.P. and Dorofeev , S.B. ( 1998 ) Influence of initial temperature, dilution and scale on DDT conditions in hydrogen-air mixtures . Arch. Combust. , 18 , 87 – 103 .
   Google Scholar
• Smith , G.P. , Golden , D.M. , Frenklach , M. , Eiteneer , B. , Goldenberg , M. , Bowman , C.T. , Hanson , R.K. , Song , S. , Gardiner Jr. , W.C. , Lissianski , V.V. , and Qin , Z. ( 1999 ) GPJ-MECH 3.0. [Online]. Available: http://www.me.berkeley.edu/gri_mech/ [2 February 2005] .
   Google Scholar
• Swain , M. ( 2004 ) Hydrogen Properties Testing and Verification . Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Summit VIII , Miami , FL .
   Google Scholar
• Taylor , G.I. (1950) The instability of liquid surfaces when accelerated in a direction perpendicular to their planes . Proc. R. Soc . A , 201 , 192 – 196 .
   Google Scholar
• Thomas , E. ( 1997 ) Direct-Hydrogen-Fueled Proton-Exchange-Membrane Fuel Cell System for Transportation Applications: Hydrogen Vehicle Safety Report . DOE report DOE/CE/50389-502 , Ford Motor Co. , Dearborn , MI .
   Google Scholar
• Transport Canada Prairie and Northern Region ( 2003 ) Arctic gas pipeline construction impacts on northern transportation. [Online]. Available: http://www.arcticgaspipeline.com/Reference/Documents&Presentations/Canada/l-03ArcticGasPipelineConstructionSTUDY.pdf [21 June 2005] .
   Google Scholar
• Vidicom Media Productions ( 2005 ) The Hindenberg. [Online]. Available: http://www.vidicom-tv.com/hindenburg/index.htm [18 May 2005] .
   Google Scholar
• Wang , B.L. and Rehm , W. ( 2001 ) Numerical studies of shock reflection and ignition . Proceedings from the 18th International Colloquium on the Dynamics of Explosions and Reactive Systems , Seattle , WA .
   Google Scholar
• Wolanski , P. and Wojcicki , S. ( 1972 ) Investigation into the Mechanism of the Diffusion Ignition of a Combustible Gas Flowing into an Oxidizing Atmosphere . Proc. Combust. Instit. , 14 , 1217 – 1223 .
   Google Scholar
• Zuttel , A. ( 2003 ) Materials for hydrogen storage . Mater. Today , 6 , 24 – 33 .
   Google Scholar