References
- Ali, S., and S. Varunkumar. 2020. Effect of burner diameter and diluents on the extinction strain rate of syngas-air non-premixed Tsuji-type flames. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 45 (15):9113–27. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.01.156.
- Ali, S. M., and S. Varunkumar. 2017. On the extinction strain rate of counterflow diffusion flames. 11th Asia-Pacific Conference on Combustion, p. 4.
- Askari, O., Z. Wang, K. Vien, M. Sirio, and H. Metghalchi. 2017. On the flame stability and laminar burning speeds of syngas/O2/He premixed flame. Fuel 190:90–103. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2016.11.042.
- Barlow, R., G. Fiechtner, C. Carter, and J.-Y. Chen. 2000. Experiments on the scalar structure of turbulent CO/H2/N2 jet flames. Combust. Flame 120 (4):549–69. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-2180(99)00126-1.
- Bilger, R. 1977. ‘Reaction rates in diffusion flames. Combust. Flame 30:277–84. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-2180(77)90076-1.
- Boivin, P., C. Jiménez, A. L. Sánchez, and F. A. Williams. 2011a. An explicit reduced mechanism for H2–air combustion. Proc. Combust. Inst. 33 (1):517–23. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2010.05.002.
- Boivin, P., C. Jiménez, A. L. Sánchez, and F. A. Williams. 2011b. A four- step reduced mechanism for syngas combustion. Combust. Flame 158 (6):1059–63. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2010.10.023.
- Bouvet, N., C. Chauveau, I. Gökalp, and F. Halter. 2011a. Experimental studies of the fundamental flame speeds of syngas H2/CO/air mixtures. Proc. Combust. Inst. 33 (1):913–20. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2010.05.088.
- Bouvet, N., C. Chauveau, I. Gökalp, S.-Y. Lee, and R. J. Santoro. 2011b. Characterization of syngas laminar flames using the bunsen burner configuration. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 36 (1):992–1005. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2010.08.147.
- Burke, M. P., X. Qin, Y. Ju, and F. L. Dryer. 2007. Measurements of hydrogen syngas flame speeds at elevated pressures. 5th US Combustion Meeting, Vol. 25.
- Chelliah, H., C. Law, T. Ueda, M. Smooke, and F. Williams. 1991. An experimental and theoretical investigation of the dilution, pressure and flow-field effects on the extinction condition of methane-air-nitrogen diffusion flames. Symp. (Int.) Combust. 23 (1):503–11. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0082-0784(06)80297-3.
- Cuoci, A., A. Frassoldati, G. B. Ferraris, T. Faravelli, and E. Ranzi. 2007. The ignition, combustion and flame structure of carbon monoxide/hydrogen mixtures. note 2: Fluid dynamics and kinetic aspects of syngas combustion. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 32 (15):3486–500. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2007.02.026.
- Das, A. K., K. Kumar, and C.-J. Sung. 2011. Laminar flame speeds of moist syngas mixtures. Combust. Flame 158 (2):345–53. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2010.09.004.
- Davis, S. G., A. V. Joshi, H. Wang, and F. Egolfopoulos. 2005. An optimized kinetic model of H2/CO combustion. Proc. Combust. Inst. 30 (1):1283–92. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2004.08.252.
- Dryer, F., and I. Glassman. 1973. High-temperature oxidation of CO and CH4. Symp. (Int.) Combust. 14 (1):987–1003. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0082-0784(73)80090-6.
- Frassoldati, A., T. Faravelli, and E. Ranzi. 2007. The ignition, combustion and flame structure of carbon monoxide/hydrogen mixtures. note 1: Detailed kinetic modeling of syngas combustion also in presence of nitrogen compounds. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 32 (15):3471–85. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2007.01.011.
- Giles, D. E., S. Som, and S. K. Aggarwal. 2006. Nox emission characteristics of counterflow syngas diffusion flames with airstream dilution. Fuel 85 (12–13):1729–42. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2006.01.027.
- Jones, W., and R. Lindstedt. 1988. Global reaction schemes for hydrocarbon combustion. Combust. Flame 73 (3):233–49. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-2180(88)90021-1.
- Krejci, M. C., O. Mathieu, A. J. Vissotski, S. Ravi, T. G. Sikes, E. L. Petersen, A. Kérmonès, W. Metcalfe, and H. J. Curran. 2013. Laminar flame speed and ignition delay time data for the kinetic modeling of hydrogen and syngas fuel blends. J. Eng. Gas Turbine Power 135 (2). doi:https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4007737.
- Lee, H., L. Jiang, and A. Mohamad. 2014. A review on the laminar flame speed and ignition delay time of syngas mixtures. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 39 (2):1105–21. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2013.10.068.
- Li, J., Z. Zhao, A. Kazakov, M. Chaos, F. L. Dryer, and J. J. Scire Jr. 2007. A comprehensive kinetic mechanism for CO, CH2O, and CH3OH combustion. Int. J. Chem. Kinet. 39 (3):109–36. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/kin.20218.
- Marzouk, O. A., and E. D. Huckaby. 2010. A comparative study of eight finite-rate chemistry kinetics for CO/H2 combustion. Eng. Appl. Computat. Fluid Mech. 4 (3):331–56. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/19942060.2010.11015322.
- Monteiro, E., M. Bellenoue, J. Sotton, N. A. Moreira, and S. Malheiro. 2010. Laminar burning velocities and markstein numbers of syngas–air mixtures. Fuel 89 (8):1985–91. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2009.11.008.
- Nikolaou, Z. M., J.-Y. Chen, and N. Swaminathan. 2013. A 5-step reduced mechanism for combustion of CO/H2/H2 O/CH4/CO2 mixtures with low hydrogen/methane and high H2O content. Combust. Flame 160 (1):56–75. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2012.09.010.
- Ning, D., A. Fan, and H. Yao. 2017. Effect of radiation emission and reabsorption on flame temperature and no formation in H2/CO/air counterflow diffusion flames. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 42 (34):22015–26. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2017.07.114.
- Park, J., D. S. Bae, M. S. Cha, J. H. Yun, S. I. Keel, H. C. Cho, T. K. Kim, and J. S. Ha. 2008a. Flame characteristics in H2/CO synthetic gas diffusion flames diluted with CO2: Effects of radiative heat loss and mixture composition. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 33 (23):7256–64. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2008.07.063.
- Park, J., J. S. Kim, J. O. Chung, J. H. Yun, and S. I. Keel. 2009. Chemical effects of added CO2 on the extinction characteristics of H2/CO/CO2 syngas diffusion flames. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 34 (20):8756–62. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2009.08.046.
- Park, J., O. B. Kwon, J. H. Yun, S. I. Keel, H. C. Cho, and S. Kim. 2008b. Preferential diffusion effects on flame characteristics in H2/CO syngas diffusion flames diluted with CO2. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 33 (23):7286–94. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2008.09.010.
- Park, S., and Y. Kim. 2017. Effects of nitrogen dilution on the NOx formation characteristics of CH4/CO/H2 syngas counterflow non-premixed flames. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 42 (16):11945–61. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2017.02.080.
- Petrova, M. V., and F. A. Williams. 2006. A small detailed chemical- kinetic mechanism for hydrocarbon combustion. Combust. Flame 144 (3):526–44. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2005.07.016.
- Rightley, M., and F. Williams. 1997. Burning velocities of CO flames. Combust. Flame 110 (3):285–97. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-2180(97)00081-3.
- Rogg, B., and F. Williams. 1989. Structures of wet co flames with full and reduced kinetic mechanisms. Symp. (Int.) Combust. 22 (1):1441–51. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0082-0784(89)80154-7.
- Safer, M., F. Tabet, A. Ouadha, and K. Safer. 2015. A numerical investigation of structure and emissions of oxygen-enriched syngas flame in counter-flow configuration. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 40 (6):2890–98. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2014.12.117.
- Sahu, A., and R. Ravikrishna. 2014. A detailed numerical study of nox kinetics in low calorific value H2/CO syngas flames. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 39 (30):17358–70. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2014.08.031.
- Sahu, A., and R. Ravikrishna. 2015. Effect of H2/CO composition on extinction strain rates of counterflow syngas flames. Energy Fuels 29 (7):4586–96. doi:https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.5b00539.
- Saxena, P., and F. A. Williams. 2006. Testing a small detailed chemical- kinetic mechanism for the combustion of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Combust. Flame 145 (1):316–23. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2005.10.004.
- Seshadri, K., and F. Williams. 1978. Laminar flow between parallel plates with injection of a reactant at high reynolds number. Int. J. Heat Mass. Transf. 21 (2):251–53. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/0017-9310(78)90230-2.
- Shih, H.-Y., and J.-R. Hsu. 2011. A computational study of combustion and extinction of opposed-jet syngas diffusion flames. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 36 (24):15868–79. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2011.09.037.
- Shih, H.-Y., and J.-R. Hsu. 2012. Computed nox emission characteristics of opposed-jet syngas diffusion flames. Combust. Flame 159 (5):1851–63. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2011.12.025.
- Shih, H.-Y., and J.-R. Hsu. 2013. Dilution effects analysis of opposed- jet H2/CO syngas diffusion flames. Combust. Theory Modelling 17 (3):543–62. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/13647830.2013.782069.
- Shih, H.-Y., J.-R. Hsu, and Y.-H. Lin. 2014. Computed flammability limits of opposed-jet H2/CO syngas diffusion flames. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 39 (7):3459–68. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2013.12.056.
- Slavinskaya, N., M. Braun-Unkhoff, and P. Frank. 2008. Reduced reaction mechanisms for methane and syngas combustion in gas turbines. J. Eng. Gas Turbine Power 130 (2):021504. doi:https://doi.org/10.1115/1.2719258.
- Smith, G., D. Golden, M. Frenklach, N. Moriarty, B. Eiteneer, M. Goldenberg, C. Bowman, R. Hanson, S. Song, W. Gardiner et al. 2007. Grimech 3.0 http://www.me.berkeley.edu/gri/mech, Last visited March.
- Som, S., A. Ramirez, J. Hagerdorn, A. Saveliev, and S. Aggarwal. 2008. A numerical and experimental study of counterflow syngas flames at different pressures. Fuel 87 (3):319–34. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2007.05.023.
- Tsuji, H. 1982. Counterflow diffusion flames. Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 8 (2):93–119. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/0360-1285(82)90015-6.
- Tsuji, H., and I. Yamaoka. 1967. The counterflow diffusion flame in the forward stagnation region of a porous cylinder. Symp. (Int.) Combust. 11 (1):979–84. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0082-0784(67)80224-8.
- Tsuji, H., and I. Yamaoka. 1969. The structure of counterflow diffusion flames in the forward stagnation region of a porous cylinder. Symp. (Int.) Combust. 12 (1):997–1005. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0082-0784(69)80478-9.
- Varghese, R. J., H. Kolekar, and S. Kumar. 2019. Laminar burning velocities of H2/CO/CH4/CO2/N2-air mixtures at elevated temperatures. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 44 (23):12188–99. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.03.103.
- Varghese, R. J., H. Kolekar, V. Hariharan, and S. Kumar. 2018. Effect of CO content on laminar burning velocities of syngas-air premixed flames at elevated temperatures. Fuel 214:144–53.
- Varunkumar, S. 2012. Packed bed gasification-combustion in biomass based domestic stoves and combustion systems, PhD thesis, Indian Institute of Science Bangalore.
- Varunkumar, S., N. Rajan, and H. Mukunda. 2011. Single particle and packed bed combustion in modern gasifier stoves—density effects. Combust. Sci. Technol. 183 (11):1147–63. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/00102202.2011.576658.
- Varunkumar, S., N. Rajan, and H. Mukunda. 2013. Universal flame propagation behavior in packed bed of biomass. Combust. Sci. Technol. 185 (8):1241–60. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/00102202.2013.782297.
- Wang, J., Y. Xie, X. Cai, Y. Nie, C. Peng, and Z. Huang. 2016. Effect of H2O addition on the flame front evolution of syngas spherical propagation flames. Combust. Sci. Technol. 188 (7):1054–72. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/00102202.2016.1145118.
- Wang, W., A. E. Karatas, C. P. Groth, and Ö. L. Gülder. 2018. Experimental and numerical study of laminar flame extinction for syngas and syngasmethane blends. Combust. Sci. Technol. 190 (8):1455–71. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/00102202.2018.1452128.
- Warnatz, J. 1981. The structure of laminar alkane-, alkene-, and acetylene flames. Symp. (Int.) Combust. Vol. 18:pp. 369–84. Elsevier
- Watanabe, H., and M. Otaka. 2006. Numerical simulation of coal gasification in entrained flow coal gasifier. Fuel 85 (12–13):1935–43. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2006.02.002.
- Weinberg, F., F. Carleton, R. Houdmont, D. Dunn-Rankin, and S. Karnani. 2011. Syngas formation in methane flames and carbon monoxide release during quenching. Combust. Flame 158 (2):273–80. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2010.08.016.
- Westbrook, C. K., and F. L. Dryer. 1984. Chemical kinetic modeling of hydrocarbon combustion. Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 10 (1):1–57. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/0360-1285(84)90118-7.
- Whitty, K. J., H. R. Zhang, and E. G. Eddings. 2008. Emissions from syngas combustion. Combust. Sci. Technol. 180 (6):1117–36. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/00102200801963326.
- Yang, K.-H., and H.-Y. Shih. 2017. No formation of opposed-jet syngas diffusion flames: Strain rate and dilution effects. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 42 (38):24517–31. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2017.07.137.
- Yepes, H. A., and A. A. Amell. 2013. Laminar burning velocity with oxygen- enriched air of syngas produced from biomass gasification. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 38 (18):7519–27. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2013.03.148.