Suppression of Soot in Flames by Alkaline-Earth and Other Metal Additives

References

• Alkemade , C. Th. J. , Hollander , Tj. , Snelleman , W. , and Zeegers , P. J. Th. ( 1982 ). Metal Vapours in Flames . Pergamon , New York .
   Google Scholar
• Baronavski , A. P. , and McDonald , J. R. ( 1977 ). Measurement of C2, concentrations in an oxygen-acetylene flame: an application of saturation spectroscopy . J. Chem. Phys. 66 , 3300 .
   Google Scholar
• Bonczyk , P. A. ( 1979 ). Measurement of particulate size by in-situ laser-optical methods: a critical evaluation applied to fuel-pyrolyzed carbon . Combust. Flame 35 , 191 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonczyk , P. A. , and Shirley , J. A. ( 1979 ). Measurement of CH and CN concentration in flames by laserinduced saturated fluorescence . Combust. Flame 34 , 253 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonczyk , P. A. ( 1983 ). In-situ optical measurement of additive effects on particulates in a sooting diffusion flame . Combust. Flame 51 , 219 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonczyk , P. A. ( 1984 ). Measurement of fuel additive effects on soot in diffusion flames . Poster Presentation at the Twentieth Symposium (International) on Combustion , Ann Arbor , Michigan , August 12-17.
   Google Scholar
• Bonczyk , P. A. ( 1985 ). Effects of alkaline-earth and similar metal additives on soot in flames . Presented at the Combustion Institute Eastern Section Meeting , Philadelphia , PA , November 4-6.
   Google Scholar
• Bonczyk , P. A. ( 1985 ). Laser detection of combustion species . In S. Martellucci and A. N. Chester (Eds.). Analytical Laser Spectroscopy . Plenum , New York , pp. 107 – 130 .
   Google Scholar
• Bonczyk , P. A. ( 1987 ). The influence of alkaline-earth additives on soot and hydroxyl radicals in diffusion flames . Combust. Flame 67 , 179 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Browner , R. F. , and Boom , A. W. ( 1984 ). Sample introduction—the Achilles' heel of atomic spectroscopy . Analytical Chemistry 56 , 786A .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bulewicz , E. M. , and Padley , P. J. ( 1971 ). Photometric observations on the behavior of tin in premixed H2+ 02 + N2 Flames . Trans. Faraday Soc. 67 , 2337 .
   Google Scholar
• Bulewicz , E. M. , Evans , D. G. , and Padley , P. J. ( 1974 ). Effect of metallic additives on soot formation processes in flames . Fifteenth Symposium (International) on Combustion , The Combustion Institute , Pittsburgh , PA , pp. 1461 – 1470 .
   Google Scholar
• Cotton , D. H. , and Jenkins , D. R. ( 1968 ). Dissociation energies of gaseous alkaline earth hydroxides . Trans. Faraday Soc. 64 , 2988 .
   Google Scholar
• Cotton , D. H. , Friswell , N. J. , and Jenkins , D. R. ( 1971 ). The suppression of soot emission from flames by metal additives . Combust. Flame 17 , 87 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• D'Alessio , A. , di Lorenzo , A. , Sarofim , A. F. , Berretta , F. , Masi , S. , and Venitozzi , C. ( 1974 ). Soot formation in methane-oxygen flames . Fifteenth Symposium (International) on Combustion , The Combustion Institute , Pittsburgh , PA , pp. 1427 – 1438 .
   Google Scholar
• Eckbreth , A. C. , Bonczyk , P. A. , and Verdieck , J. F. ( 1978 ). Laser Raman and fluorescence techniques for practical combustion diagnostics . Applied Spectroscopy Reviews 13 , 15 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feugier , A. ( 1978 ). Effect of metal additives on the amount of soot emitted by premixed hydrocarbon flames . Adv. Chem: Ser. 166 ( Evaporation Combust. Fuels ), 178 .
   Google Scholar
• Fruehan , R. J. , and Martonik , L. J. ( 1976 ). The rate of reduction of MgO by carbon . Metallurgical Transactions 7B , 537 .
   Google Scholar
• Gaydon , A. G. , and Wolfhard , H. G. ( 1979 ). Flames: Their Structure, Radiation and Temperature , 4th Ed. , Halsted Press (Wiley) , New York , pp. 269 – 271 .
   Google Scholar
• Grayson , M. , and Eckroth , D. (Eds.) ( 1978 ). Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology , 3rd Ed. , Wiley , New York , Vol. 4 , p. 508 .
   Google Scholar
• Halls , D. J. ( 1977 ). The efficiency of atomisation of sodium, potassium and lithium in the air-acetylene flame . Spectrochimica Acta 32B , 397 .
   Google Scholar
• Hayhurst , A. N. , and Kittelson , D. B. ( 1974 ). Ionization of alkaline earth additives in hydrogen flames. II: Kinetics of production and recombination of ions . Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A. 338 , 175 .
   Google Scholar
• Haynes , B. S. , Jander , H. , and Wagner , H. G. ( 1979 ). The effect of metal additives on the formation of soot in premixed flames . Seventeenth Symposium (International) on Combustion , The Combustion Institute , Pittsburgh , PA , pp. 1365 – 1374 .
   Google Scholar
• Hellmold , P. , and Gordziel , W. ( 1983 ). Untersuchungen zu den Teilreaktionen der Calciumcarbidbildung. Teil II: Untersuchungen zur Calcium carbidbildung aus Calciumoxid und Kohlenstoff . Chemische Technik(Leipzig) 35 , 297 .
   Google Scholar
• Howard , J. B. , and Kausch , W. J. , Jr. ( 1980 ). Soot control by fuel additives . Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 6 , 263 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jensen , D. E. , and Jones , G. A. ( 1978 ). Alkaline earth flame chemistry . Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A. 364 , 509 .
   Google Scholar
• Kaiser , E. W. , Rothschild , W. G. , and Lavoie , G. A. ( 1984 ). Chemical species profiles of laminar propane-air flames . Combust. Sci. Tech. 41 , 271 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kent , J. H. , and Wagner , H. Gg. ( 1982 ). Soot measurements in laminar ethylene diffusion flames . Combust. Flame 47 , 53 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kerker , M. ( 1969 ). The Scattering of Light and Other Electromagnetic Radiation . Academic Press , New York .
   Google Scholar
• Mavrodineanu , R. , and Boiteux , H. ( 1965 ). Flame Spectroscopy , Wiley , New York ( 1965 ) .
   Google Scholar
• McKee , D. W. ( 1982 ). Gasification of graphite in carbon dioxide and water vapor-the catalytic effects of alkali metal salts . Carbon 20 , 59 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naval Environmental Protection Support Service, Aircraft Environmental Support Office, Naval Air Systems Command, Naval Air Rework Facility, North Island, California ( 1983 ). Cerium and ferrocene fuel additive tests on the TF41 and T56 engines for visible emission reduction . AESO Report No. 110-05-83 , June .
   Google Scholar
• Ndubizu , C. c. , and Zinn , B. T. ( 1982 ). Effects of metallic additives upon soot formation in polymer diffusion flames . Combust. Flame 46 , 301 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Okada , H. ( 1983 ). Effects of barium compounds on soot formation in single spray combustion . Oxidation Communications 4 , 273 .
   Google Scholar
• Pearse , R. W. B. , and Gaydon , A. G. ( 1976 ). The Identification of Molecular Spectra , 4th Ed. , Halsted , New York .
   Google Scholar
• Piepmeier , E. H. ( 1972 ). Theory of laser saturated atomic resonance fluorescence . Spectrochim. Acta 27B , 431 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samuelsen , G. S. , Wood , C. P. , and Jackson , T. A. ( 1983 ). Optical measurements of soot size and number density in a complex flow, swirl-stabilized combustor . Presented at the 62nd Symposium on Combustion Promblems in Turbine Engines , Cesrne , Turkey , October .
   Google Scholar
• Schofield , K. , and Sugden , T. M. ( 1965 ). Some observations on the ionization of alkali and alkaline-earth elements in hydrogen flames . Tenth Symposium (International) on Combustion , The Combustion Institute , Pittsburgh , PA , pp. 589 – 604 .
   Google Scholar
• Senftleben , H. , and Benedict , E. ( 1918 ). Ober die Optischen Konstanten und die Strahlungsgesetze der Kohle . Annalen der Physik 54 , 65 .
   Google Scholar
• Smyth , K. C. , Miller , J. H. , Dorfman , R. c. , Mallard , W. G. , and Santoro , R. J. ( 1985 ). Spot inception in a methane/air diffusion flame as characterized by detailed species profiles . Combust. Flame 62 , 157 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smyth , K. C. , and Miller , J. H. ( 1987 ). Chemistry of molecular growth processes in flames . Science 236 , 1540 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stull , D. R. , and Prophet , H. (Project Directors) ( 1971 ). JANAF Thermochemical Tables , 2nd Ed. , U.S. Government Printing Office , Washington , June .
   Google Scholar
• Suchard , S. N. (Ed.) ( 1975 ). Spectroscopic Data , Vol. I , Part A . IFI/Plenum , New York .
   Google Scholar
• Verdieck , J. E. , and Bonczyk , P. A. ( 1981 ). Laser-induced saturated fluorescence investigations of CH, CN and NO in flames . Eighteenth Symposium (International) on Combustion , The Combustion Institute , Pittsburgh , PA , pp. 1559 – 1566 .
   Google Scholar
• Willis , J. B. ( 1967 ). Atomization problems in atomic absorption spectroscopy. I: A Study of the Operation of a Typical Nebulizer, Spray Chamber and Burner System . Spectrochimica Acta BA , 811 .
   Google Scholar
• Wolfhard , H. G. , and Parker , W. G. ( 1949 ). A new technique for the spectroscopic examination of flames at normal pressures . Proc. Phys. Soc. 62A , 722 .
   Google Scholar
• Wolfhard , H. G. , and Parker , W. G. ( 1952 ). A spectroscopic investigation into the structure of diffusion flames . Proc. Phys. Soc. 65A , 2 .
   Google Scholar