References
- Alfaro, L., and M. X. Chen. 2012. “Surviving the Global Financial Crisis: Foreign Ownership and Establishment Performance.” American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 4 (3): 30–55.
- Alvarez, R., and H. Görg. 2007. “Multinationals as Stabilizers? Economic Crisis and Plant Employment Growth.” IZA Discussion Paper No. 2692.
- Andrews, D., C. Criscuolo, and B. N. Gal. 2016. The Best versus the Rest: The Global Productivity Slowdown, Divergence across Firms and the Role of Public Policy (OECD Productivity Working Papers No. 5; OECD Productivity Working Papers, Vol. 5). doi:https://doi.org/10.1787/63629cc9-en.
- Athukorala, P. C. 2003. “Foreign Direct Investment in Crisis and Recovery: Lessons from the 1997–1998 Asian Crisis.” Australian Economic History Review 43 (2): 197–213. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8446.t01-1-00051.
- Bachmann, R., C. Bayer, C. Merkl, S. Seth, H. Stüber, and F. Wellschmied. 2021. “Worker Churn in the Cross Section and over Time: New Evidence from Germany.” Journal of Monetary Economics 117:781–97. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmoneco.2020.05.003.
- Balsvik, R. 2011. “Is Labor Mobility a Channel for Spillovers from Multinationals? Evidence from Norwegian Manufacturing.” Review of Economics and Statistics 93 (1): 285–97. doi:https://doi.org/10.1162/REST_a_00061.
- Barlevy, G. 2002. “The Sullying Effect of Recessions.” The Review of Economic Studies 69 (1): 65–96. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-937X.00198.
- Bellak, C. 2004. “How Domestic and Foreign Firms Differ and Why Does It Matter?” Journal of Economic Surveys 18 (4): 483–514. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0950-0804.2004.00228.x.
- Böckerman, P., and P. Ilmakunnas. 2012. “The Job Satisfaction-productivity Nexus: A Study Using Matched Survey and Register Data.” ILR Review 65 (2): 244–62. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/001979391206500203.
- Boddewyn, J. J., M. B. Halbrich, and A. C. Perry. 1986. “Service Multinationals: Conceptualization, Measurement and Theory.” Journal of International Business Studies 17 (3): 41–57. doi:https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490860.
- Bratsberg, B., O. Raaum, and K. Røed. 2020. “Excess Churn in Integrated Labor Markets.” Journal of Population Economics34 (3): 865–892. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s00148-020-00795-1
- Brixiova, Z. 2009. “Labour Market Flexibility in Estonia: What More Can Be Done?” OECD Economics Department Working Papers No. 697. doi:https://doi.org/10.1787/224177441445.
- Brixiova, Z., L. Vartia, and A. Wörgötter. 2010. “Capital Flows and the Boom–bust Cycle: The Case of Estonia.” Economic Systems 34 (1): 55–72. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecosys.2009.11.002.
- Brown, J. D., J. S. Earle, and Á. Telegdy. 2006. “The Productivity Effects of Privatization: Longitudinal Estimates from Hungary, Romania, Russia, and Ukraine.” Journal of Political Economy 114 (1): 61–99. doi:https://doi.org/10.1086/499547.
- Burgess, S., J. Lane, and D. Stevens. 2000. “Job Flows, Worker Flows and Churning.” Journal of Labor Economics 18 (3): 473–502. doi:https://doi.org/10.1086/209967.
- Bykova, A., and C. M. Jardon. 2017. “Lean against the Wind: The Moderation Effect of Foreign Investments during the Economic Recession in Russia.” Journal of Economics and Business 93:1–14. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconbus.2017.07.001.
- Davis, S. J., R. J. Faberman, and J. Haltiwanger. 2006. “The Flow Approach to Labor Markets: New Data Sources and Micro-Macro Links.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 20 (3): 3–26. doi:https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.20.3.3.
- Devereux, P. J. 2002. “Occupational Upgrading and the Business Cycle.” Labour 16 (3): 423–52. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9914.00202.
- Domini, G., and D. Moschella. 2018. “Reallocation and Productivity during the Great Recession: Evidence from French Manufacturing Firms, LEM Working Paper Series, No. 2018/11, Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna, Laboratory of Economics and Management (LEM), Pisa.” http://hdl.handle.net/10419/203064.
- Dunning, J. H. 1988. “The Eclectic Paradigm of International Production: A Restatement and Some Possible Extensions.” Journal of International Business Studies 19 (1): 1–31. doi:https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490372.
- Eamets, R. 2013. “Labour Market and Labour Market Policies during Great Recession: The Case of Estonia.” IZA Journal of European Labor Studies 2 (1): 4. doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/2193-9012-2-4.
- Eamets, R., and J. Masso. 2004. Labour Market Flexibility and Employment Protection Regulation in the Baltic States. Available at SSRN 553864.
- Earle, J. S., Á. Telegdy, and G. Antal. 2018. “Foreign Ownership and Wages: Evidence from Hungary, 1986–2008.” ILR Review 71 (2): 458–91. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0019793917700087.
- Ettlie, J. E. 1985. “The Impact of Interorganizational Manpower Flows on the Innovation Process.” Management Science 31 (9): 1055–71. doi:https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.31.9.1055.
- Eurostat. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat.
- Fabiani, S., A. Lamo, J. Messina, and T. Rõõm. 2015. “European Firm Adjustment during Times of Economic Crisis.” IZA Journal of Labor Policy 4 (1). doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/s40173-015-0048-3.
- Foster, L., C. Grim, and J. Haltiwanger. 2016. “Reallocation in the Great Recession: Cleansing or Not?” Journal of Labor Economics 34 (S1): S293–S331. doi:https://doi.org/10.1086/682397.
- Gautier, P., and L. Broersma. 2001. “The Timing of Labour Reallocation and the Business Cycle: Evidence for the Netherlands.” Labour 15 (4): 663–84. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9914.00182
- Georgopoulos, A., and K. W. Glaister. 2018. “Firm Heterogeneity and Performance in a Turbulent Economic Environment: Evidence from Greece.” European Management Review 15 (2): 237–54. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/emre.12144
- Godart, O., H. Görg, and A. Hanley. 2012. “Surviving the Crisis: Foreign Multinationals versus Domestic Firms.” The World Economy 35 (10): 1305–21. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9701.2012.01485.x
- Gómez-Salvador, R., J. Messina, and G. Vallanti. 2004. Gross Job Flows and Institutions in Europe, Labour Economics 11 (4): 469–85. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2004.02.006
- Hale, G., and C. Long. 2011. “Did Foreign Direct Investment Put an Upward Pressure on Wages in China?” IMF Economic Review 59 (3): 404–30. doi:https://doi.org/10.1057/imfer.2011.14
- Hall, R. E. 1991. “Labor Demand, Labor Supply, and Employment Volatility” NBER Macroeconomics Annual 6:17–47. doi:https://doi.org/10.1086/654155.
- Haltiwanger, J., S. Scarpetta, and H. Schweiger. 2008. “Assessing Job Flows across Countries: The Role of Industry, Firm Size and Regulations (No. W13920).” National Bureau of Economic Research. doi:https://doi.org/10.3386/w13920.
- Harlow, H. 2008. “The Effect of Tacit Knowledge on Firm Performance.” Journal of Knowledge Management 12 (1): 148–63. doi:https://doi.org/10.1108/13673270810852458
- Hochmuth, B., H. Gartner, B. Kohlbrecher, and C. Merkl. 2016. Labor Selection over the Business Cycle: An Empirical Assessment, FAU Discussion Papers in Economics, No. 02/2016. Erlangen: Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Institute for Economics.
- Ilmakunnas, P., and M. Maliranta. 2003. “The Turnover of Jobs and Workers in a Deep Recession: Evidence from the Finnish Business Sector.” International Journal of Manpower 24 (3): 216–46. doi:https://doi.org/10.1108/01437720310479714
- Ilmakunnas, P., and M. Maliranta. 2005. “Worker Inflow, Outflow, and Churning.” Applied Economics 37 (10): 1115–33. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/00036840500109621
- Ilmakunnas, P., M. Maliranta, and J. Vainiomäki. 2005. “Worker Turnover and Productivity Growth.” Applied Economics Letters 12 (7): 395–98. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/13504850500109790
- Iqbal, A., and O. Kume. 2014. “Impact of Financial Crisis on Firms’ Capital Structure in UK, France, and Germany.” Multinational Finance Journal 18 (3/4): 249–80. doi:https://doi.org/10.17578/18-3/4-3
- Jannsen, N. 2010. “National and International Business Cycle Effects of Housing Crises.” Applied Economics Quarterly 56 (2): 175. doi:https://doi.org/10.3790/aeq.56.2.175
- Jude, C., and M. I. P. Silaghi. 2016. “Employment Effects of Foreign Direct Investment: New Evidence from Central and Eastern European Countries.” International Economics 145:32–49. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inteco.2015.02.003.
- Kogut, B. 1991. “Joint Ventures and the Option to Expand and Acquire.” Management Science 37 (1): 19–33. doi:https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.37.1.19
- Lazear, E. P., and J. R. Spletzer. 2012. “Hiring, Churn, and the Business Cycle.” American Economic Review 102 (3): 575–79. doi:https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.102.3.575
- Lee, C.-C., M.-P. Chen, and S.-L. Ning. 2017. “Why Did Some Firms Perform Better in the Global Financial Crisis?” Economic Research-Ekonomska Istraživanja 30 (1): 339–1366. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/1331677X.2017.1355258
- Lee, S.-H., and M. Makhija. 2009. “Flexibility in Internationalization: Is It Valuable during an Economic Crisis?” Strategic Management Journal 30 (5): 537–55. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.742
- Levine, D. I. 1992. “Can Wage Increases Pay for Themselves? Tests with a Productive Function.” The Economic Journal 102 (414): 1102–15. doi:https://doi.org/10.2307/2234379
- López-Cabarcos, M. Á., S. Srinivasan, S. Göttling-Oliveira-Monteiro, and P. Vázquez-Rodríguez. 2019. “Tacit Knowledge and Firm Performance Relationship. The Role of Product Innovation and the Firm Level Capabilities.” Journal of Business Economics and Management 20 (2): 330–50. doi:https://doi.org/10.3846/jbem.2019.9590
- Malk, L. 2014. “Relaxation of Employment Protection and Labour Reallocation.” International Journal of Manpower 35 (6): 898–926. doi:https://doi.org/10.1108/IJM-11-2013-0253
- Malk, L. 2015. “Labour Cost Adjustment in Estonia during and after the Crisis.” Bank of Estonia Occasional Papers, 1, 2015.
- Marino, M., P. Parrotta, and D. Pozzoli. 2016. “Educational Diversity and Knowledge Transfers via Inter-firm Labor Mobility.” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 123:168–83. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2015.10.019.
- Mariotti, S., M. Mutinelli, M. Nicolini, and L. Piscitello. 2015. “Productivity Spillovers from Foreign Multinational Enterprises to Domestic Manufacturing Firms: To What Extent Does Spatial Proximity Matter?” Regional Studies 49 (10): 1639–53. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2013.867428
- Marksoo, Ü. 2012. “Development of the Estonian Labour Market in Comparison with Other Countries of the European Union.” In Employment and Working Life in Estonia 2010–2011, Series of the Ministry of Social Affairs, No. 2/2012, edited by Ü. Marksoo, 5–9. Tallinn, Estonia.
- Martin, J. P., and S. Scarpetta. 2012. “Setting It Right: Employment Protection, Labour Reallocation and Productivity.” De Economist 160 (2): 89–116. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10645-011-9177-2
- Martins, P. S. 2011. “Paying More to Hire the Best? Foreign Firms, Wages, and Worker Mobility.” Economic Inquiry 49 (2): 349–63. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1465-7295.2010.00301.x
- Masso, J., and K. Krillo. 2011. “Labour Markets in the Baltic States during the Crisis 2008-2009: The Effect on Different Labour Market Groups.” The University of Tartu Faculty of Economics and Business Administration Working Paper, 79.
- Masso, J., and P. Vahter. 2019. “Knowledge Transfer from Multinationals through Labour Mobility: Are There Effects on Productivity, Product Sophistication and Exporting?” Emerging Markets Finance and Trade 55 (12): 2774–95. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/1540496X.2018.1530653
- McKee-Ryan, F. M., and J. Harvey. 2011. ““I Have A Job, but … ”: A Review of Underemployment.” Journal of Management 37 (4): 962–96. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206311398134
- Meriküll, J., and T. Rõõm. 2014. Are Foreign-owned Firms Different? Comparison of Employment Volatility and Elasticity of Labour Demand. Tallinn: Eesti Pank.
- Mion, G., and L. D. Opromolla. 2014. “Managers’ Mobility, Trade Performance, and Wages.” Journal of International Economics 94 (1): 85–101. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinteco.2014.06.001
- Modestino, A. S., D. Shoag, and J. Ballance. 2020. “Upskilling: Do Employers Demand Greater Skill When Workers Are Plentiful?” The Review of Economics and Statistics 102 (4): 793–805. doi:https://doi.org/10.1162/rest_a_00835
- Mohnen, P., and B. H. Hall. 2013. “Innovation and Productivity: An Update.” Eurasian Business Review. 3 (1): 47–65. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.14208/BF03353817
- Müller, K., and B. Peters. 2010. “Churning of R&D Personnel and Innovation.” ZEW Discussion Papers, No. 10-032. Mannheim: Zentrum für Europäische Wirtschaftsforschung (ZEW).
- OECD. 2017. “Estonia. Trade and Investment Statistical Note.” Accessed March 22, 2020. http://www.oecd.org/investment/Estonia-trade-investment-statistical-country-note.pdf.
- OECD, ed. 2009. Tackling the Jobs Crisis. OECD Employment Outlook 2009. Paris: OECD. https://www.oecd.org/els/emp/45219606.pdf
- Ouyang, M. 2009. “The Scarring Effect of Recessions.” Journal of Monetary Economics 56 (2): 184–99. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmoneco.2008.12.014
- Paunov, C. 2012. “The Global Crisis and Firms’ Investments in Innovation.” Research Policy 41 (1): 24–35. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2011.07.007
- Pissarides, C. A. 2000. Equilibrium Unemployment Theory. 2nd ed. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
- Poole, J. P. 2013. “Knowledge Transfers from Multinational to Domestic Firms: Evidence from Worker Mobility.” Review of Economics and Statistics 95 (2): 393–406. doi:https://doi.org/10.1162/REST_a_00258
- Raudla, R., and R. Kattel. 2011. “Why Did Estonia Choose Fiscal Retrenchment after the 2008 Crisis?” Journal of Public Policy 31 (2): 163–86. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/S0143814X11000067
- Reder, M. W. 1955. “The Theory of Occupational Wage Differentials.” The American Economic Review 45 (5): 833–52.
- Reinhart, C. M., and K. S. Rogoff. 2009. This Time Is Different: Eight Centuries of Financial Folly. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
- Roberts, J. 2018. Multinational Business Service Firms: Development of Multinational Organization Structures in the UK Business Service Sector. London: Routledge.
- Roosaar, L., J. Masso, and U. Varblane. 2019. “Age-related Productivity Decrease in High-waged and Low-waged Employees.” International Journal of Manpower 40 (6): 1151–70. doi:https://doi.org/10.1108/IJM-03-2018-0086
- Roosaar, Liis, Pille Mõtsmees, and Urmas Varblane. 2014. “Occupational Mobility over the Business Cycle.” Edited by Dr Raul Eamets and Dr Krista Jaakson. International Journal of Manpower 35 (6): 873–97. doi:https://doi.org/10.1108/IJM-06-2013–0130
- Rugman, A. M., and A. Verbeke. 2008. “A New Perspective on the Regional and Global Strategies of Multinational Services Firms.” Management International Review 48 (4): 15. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11575-008-0023-y
- Sala, D., and E. Yalcin. 2015. “Export Experience of Managers and the Internationalisation of Firms.” The World Economy 38 (7): 1064–89. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/twec.12222
- Sargent, T. C., and E. Rodriguez. 2001. “Labour or Total Factor Productivity: Do We Need to Choose?” Working Papers-Department of Finance Canada. Department of Finance Canada.
- Schumpeter, J. A. [1943] 2003. Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy, 437. London and New York: Routledge.
- Skirbekk, V. 2004. “Age and Individual Productivity: A Literature Survey.” Vienna Yearbook of Population Research 2 (2004): 133–53. doi:https://doi.org/10.1553/populationyearbook2004s133
- Statistics Estonia. “Eesti Statistikaamet.” www.stat.ee
- Stoyanov, A., and N. Zubanov. 2012. “Productivity Spillovers across Firms through Worker Mobility.” American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 4 (2): 168–98.
- Svalund, J. 2015. “Adjusting Labour through Crisis: A Three Industry Comparison.” Economic and Industrial Democracy 36 (1): 99–121. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0143831X13499619
- Syverson, C. 2011. “What Determines Productivity?” Journal of Economic Literature 49 (2): 326–65. doi:https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.49.2.326
- Varblane, U. 2017. “Estonian Economy-Past, Present, and Future.” Departmental Bulletin Paper No 43. http://klibredb.lib.kanagawa-u.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/10487/14575/1/43-14.pdf.
- Varblane, U. 2020. “Estonia- Economy.” Central and South-Eastern Europe 2021, 209–212. London: Routledge.
- .Varum, C. A., and V. C. B. Rocha. 2011. “Do Foreign and Domestic Firms Behave Any Different during Economic Slowdowns?” International Business Review 20 (1): 48–59. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2010.06.001
- Viilmann, N., and O. Soosaar. 2012. “Tööturu Ülevaade.” Eesti Pank 2. https://haldus.eestipank.ee/sites/default/files/publication/20121105_tooturu_ulevaade_2012_2pa_est.pdf
- Visser, J. 2015. ICTWSS Data Base. Version 5.0. Amsterdam: Amsterdam Institute for Advanced Labour Studies AIAS, October.
- Wagner, J., and J. P. W. Gelübcke. 2012. “Foreign Ownership and Firm Survival: First Evidence for Enterprises in Germany.” International Economics 132:117–39. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S2110-7017(13)60060-8.
- Weingarden, A. 2020. “Worker Churn at Establishments over the Business Cycle.” FEDS Notes 2020- 08-24, August 24. doi:https://doi.org/10.17016/2380-7172.2379.
- Zeithaml, V. A., A. Parasuraman, and L. L. Berry. 1985. “Problems and Strategies in Services Marketing.” Journal of Marketing 49 (2): 33–46. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/002224298504900203