Notes
- See, for example, the citations in Nancy H. St. John , School Desegregation ( New York : Wiley & Sons , 1975 ).
- Pettigrew and Rose give examples of this from their personal experiences. See Thomas F. Pettigrew , “Sociological Consulting in Race Relations,” American Sociologist 6 ( 1971 ): 44 – 47 Arnold Rose, “The Social Scientist as an Expert Witness in Court Cases” in The Uses of Sociology, ed. ed. p. Lazarsfeld, W. Sewell, and H. Wilensky (New York Basic Books, 1967).
- D. J. Armor , “The Evidence on Busing,” The Public Interest , Summer 1972 , pp. 90 – 126 T. F. Pettigrew, E. L. Useem, C. Normand, and M. S. Smith, “Busing: A Review of the Evidence,” The Public Interest, Winter 1973, pp. 88–118; D. J. Armor, “The Double Double Standard: A Reply,” The Public Interest, Winter 1973, pp. 119–31.
- James S. Coleman et al., Trends in School Segregation ( Washington , D.C. : The Urban Institute, August 1975 ); Reynolds Farley, “School Integration and White Flight,” (Paper presented at the Symposium on School Desegregation and White Flight, Brookings Institution, Washington, D.C., August 15, 1975).
- James S. Coleman et al., Equality of Educational Opportunity ( Washington , D.C. : U.S. Government Printing Office , 1966 ).
- Christopher Jencks et al., Inequality ( New York : Basic Books , 1972 ); Marshall S. Smith, “Equality of Educational Opportunity: The Basic Findings Reconsidered,” in On Equality of Educational Opportunity, ed. Frederick Mosteller and Daniel p. Moynihan (New York: Random House, 1972); Armor, “Evidence”; Pettigrew et al., “Busing”; Coleman et al., Equality.
- Frank Lewis and Frank Zarb , “Federal Program Evaluation from the OMB Perspective,” Public Administration Review , July-August 1974 ; Elliot Richardson in Responsibility and Responsiveness (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of H.E.W., 1972).
- See, for example, James S. Coleman , Policy Research in the Social Sciences ( Morristown : General Learning Press , 1972 ); Daniel p. Moynihan, Maximum Feasible Misunderstanding (New York: Free Press, 1969); Walter Williams, Social Policy Research and Analysis (New York: American Elsevier, 1971); Robert Scott and Arnold Shore, “Sociology and Policy Analysis,” American Sociologist, May 1974.
- For a discussion of these points see Thomas Kuhn , The Structure of Scientific Revolutions ( Chicago : University of Chicago Press , 1962 ).
- Social Science Brief (Appendix to Appellant's Briefs: The Effects of Segregation and the Consequences of Desegregation: A Social Science Statement). Reprinted in Kenneth B. Clark , Prejudice and Your Child ( Boston : Beacon Press , 1963 , 2nd edition ), pp. 166 – 84
- Henry E. Garrett , “A Note of the Intelligence Scores of Negroes and Whites in 1918 ,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 40 , 1945 ; Henry E. Garrett, “The Equalitarian Dogma,” Mankind Quarterly 1 (1961); Audrey Shuey, The Testing of Negro Intelligence (Lynchburg, Va.: Bell, 1958).
- See the extensive reviews in St. John , School Desegregation and in Meyer Weinberg, “The Relationship between School Desegregation and Academic Achievement: A Review of the Research,” Law and Contemporary Problems 39 (Spring 1975):240–70.
- Coleman et al., Equality.
- See for example, U. S. Commission on Civil Rights , Racial Isolation in the Public Schools , vols. 1 & 2 ( Washington , D.C. : U.S. Govt. Printing Office , 1967 ).
- Ibid.
- For example, St. John in School Desegregation writes: “In sum, comparative studies of the racial attitudes of segregated and desegregated school children are inconclusive. Findings were inconsistent and mixed regardless of whether students' racial attitudes or friendship choice was the object of the study, regardless of whether desegregation was by neighborhood or busing, voluntary or mandatory, and regardless of whether the study design was cross-sectional or longitudinal,” p. 80 .
- See, for example, Charles V. Hamilton , “Race and Education: A Search for Legitimacy,” Harvard Educational Review 38 ( Fall 1968 ).
- The 1979 USCCR report was the first in this line of thought.
- Derrick A. Bell , Jr. , “Waiting on the Promise of Brown,” Law and Contemporary Problems , Winter 1975 , pp. 341 – 73
- For example, Nathan Glazer writes: “If, then, the judges are moving toward a reorganization of American education because they believe this will improve relations between the races, they are acting neither on evidence nor on experience but on faith. And in so acting on faith they are pushing against many legitimate interests: the interest in using tax money for education rather than transportation; the interest of the working and lower middle classes in attending schools near their homes; the interest of all groups, including black groups, in developing some measure of control over the institutions which affect their lives; the interest of all people in retaining freedom of choice wherever this is possible.” See N. Glazer, “Is Busing Necessary?,” Commentary 53 (March 1972).
- For an expansion of this point, see David K. Cohen , “Reporting to Society,” unpublished manuscript, Harvard University.
- For example, Henry Levin has pointed out this phenomenon in the case of school expenditures. “Presentation of evidence on the relationship between educational expenditures and cognitive achievement implicitly narrows the context within which the effects of using expenditure patterns will be considered. While the two sides to this debate disagree on the effects of school resources, both have accepted the view that standardized achievement scores are the appropriate focus for exploring educational outcomes.” See H. M. Levin , “Education, Life Chances, and the Courts: The Role of Social Science Evidence,” Law and Contemporary Problems 39 ( Spring 1975 ): 237 .
- As one of many examples see, Donald T. Campbell , “Assessing the Impact of Planned Social Change,” in Social Research and Policies , ed. G. Lyons ( Hanover : University Press of New England , 1975 ), pp. 3 – 45
- Kenneth and Mamie Clark , “Racial Identification and Preference in Negro Children,” in Readings in Social Psychology , ed. T. Newcomb and E. Hartley , 1st ed., ( New York : Holt and Co. , 1947 ).
- Garrett , “ Equalitarian ”; Shuey, Testing.
- For example, Thomas Pettigrew writes about the desegregation of the Washington , D. C. schools: “Though Negro students, swelled by migrants now comprised three fourths of the student body, achievement test scores had risen significantly for each grade level sampled and each subject area tested approached or equalled national norms. Furthermore, both Negro and White students shared in these increments.” See T. F. Pettigrew, A Profile of the Negro American ( Princeton , N.J. : D. Van Nostrand Co. , 1964 ), p. 128 .
- For a discussion of these studies see, Shelden White et al., Federal Programs for Young Children, Vol. 2: Review of Evaluation Data for Federally Sponsored Projects for Children , Appendix 11 A ( Washington , D.C : U.S. Govt. Printing Office , 1973 ); also, Robert A. Matthai, “The Academic Performance of Negro Students: An Analysis of the Research Findings from Several Busing Programs,” Special Qualifying Paper, Harvard University Graduate School of Education, June 1968. One example of such studies is the report on the effects of desegregation in Berkeley, California. See Neil Sullivan, “The Berkeley Experience,” Harvard Educational Review, Winter 1968.
- See Gerald Paul Grant , “ The Politics of the Coleman Report ,” (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University Graduate School of Education, 1972 ).
- Samuel Bowles and Henry M. Levin , “The Determinants of Scholastic Achievement—An Appraisal of Some Recent Evidence,” Journal of Human Resources 3 ( Winter 1968 ): 3 – 24
- For fuller treatments of this phenomenon see: James S. Coleman , “ Integration of Sociology and the Other Social Sciences Through Policy Analysis ,” in Integration of the Social Sciences , ed. James C. Charlesworth , Monograph 14 ( Philadelphia : American Academy of Political and Social Science , 1972 ); also, David K. Cohen and Michael S. Garet, “Reforming Educational Policy with Applied Social Research,” Harvard Educational Review 45 (Winter 1975).
- Mosteller and Moynihan , On Equality.
- George Mayeske et al., A Study of Our Nation's Schools ( Washington , D.C. : DHEW , 1972 ).
- Smith in Mosteller and Moynihan , On Equality.
- D. K. Cohen , T. F. Pettigrew , and R. T. Riley , “Race and the Outcomes of Schooling,” in Mosteller and Moynihan , On Equality.
- Jencks et al., Inequality.
- Design for a National Longitudinal Study of School Desegregation ( Santa Monica : Rand Corp. , 1974 ).
- Levin , “ Education. ”
- Robert L. Crain et al., Southern Schools: An Evaluation of the Effects of the Emergency School Assistance Program , vols. 1 and 2 ( NORC , 1973 ).
- See, for example, Samuel Bowles , “Toward Equality of Educational Opportunity?,” Harvard Educational Review 38 ( Winter 1968 ).
- Memorandum from George Madaus to Members of the Joint Committee on Test Standards Revision, May 7, 1973 ; also Frederick Mosher, “Progress Report on the Instrumentation Study,” (The Huron Institute, June 1974).
- Among the earliest critics were Joshua Fishman et al., “Guidelines for Testing Minority Children,” Journal of Social Issues 20 ( April 1964 ): 129 – 45
- Crain et al., Southern Schools.
- Gordon W. Allport , The Nature of Prejudice ( Garden City , N.Y. : Doubleday Anchor Books , 1954 ); and Samual A. Stouffer et al., The American Soldier (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1949).
- See St. John , School Desegregation , Chapter 4 .
- James M. Jones , Prejudice and Racism ( Reading , Ma. : Addison-Wesley 1972 ); also St. John, School Desegregation.
- Judith Porter , Black Child, White Child ( Cambridge : Harvard University Press , 1971 ).
- See, for example, R. Hope ( 1967 ) cited in St. John, School Desegregation , and Porter, Black Child.
- Allan Wicker , “Attitudes versus Actions: The Relationship of Verbal and Overt Behavioral Responses to Attitude Objects,” Journal of Social Issues 25 ( 1969 ): 75 .
- J. Seidner ( 1971 ) described in Elizabeth G. Cohen , “ The Effects of Desegregation on Race Relations ,” Law and Contemporary Problems 39 (Spring 1975 ): 271 – 99
- I. Katz and L. Benjamin , “Effects of White Authoritarianism in Biracial Work Groups,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 61 ( 1960 ): 448 – 56
- Examples of this kind of research include Crain et al., Southern Schools , Appendix CI, USCCR, Racial Isolation; J. E. Teele and C. Mayo, “School Racial Integration: Tumult and Shame,” Journal of Social Issues 25 (1969): 137–56; E. Useem, “White Students and Token Desegregation,” Integrated Education, 1972, pp. 44–56; C. Willie and J. Beker, Race Mixing in the Public Schools (1973).
- Crain et al., Southern Schools.
- Cohen , “ Effects of Desegregation ,” p. 286 .
- Raymond Rist , The Invisible Children: School Integration in American Society ( Cambridge : Harvard University Press , 1976 ).
- For example, one federal district court judge noted, “ much of the current research replies to precise policy based questions with the ambiguity of a Delphic oracle … ” Hart vs. Community School Board , 383 F. Supp. 699 , 744 (E.D.N.Y., 1974 ).
- In Hobson v. Hansen (327 F. Supp. 844, 859 (D.D.C. 1971), Judge J. Skelly Wright: “Having hired their respective experts, the lawyers in this case had a basic responsibility, which they have not completely met, to put the hard core statistical demonstrations into language which serious and concerned laymen could, with effort, understand. Moreover, the studies by both experts are tainted by a vice well known in the statistical trade—data shopping and scanning to reach a preconceived result; and the court has had to reject parts of both reports as unreliable because biased. Lest like a latter day version of Jarndyce v. Jarndyce this litigation itself should consume the capital of children in whose behalf it was brought, the court has been forced back to its own common sense approach to a problem which, though admittedly complex, has certainly been made more obscure than was necessary.”
- Catherine Caldwell shows how the EEO survey was used this way; see, Caldwell, “Social Science as Ammunition,” Psychology Today 4 (September 1970):38–41, 72–73.
- Some social scientists warn that the federal government domination of research funding will lead to government domination of research perspectives and of the growth of knowledge. Green urges researchers to deny their services to the existing power structure in order to support countervailing forces whose viewpoints are, he argues, chronically unrepresented. See Philip Green, “ The Obligations of American Social Scientists ,” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences 394 ( March 1971 ): 13 – 27
- Coleman et al., Trends.