Alternative Schools for Disruptive Youth

Notes

• See, for example, Robert D. Barr , “Whatever Happened to the Free School Movement?,” Phi Delta Kappan 54 ( March 1973 ): 454 – 57 Joe Nathan, “Let Us Be Extremely Frank: A Concise History of Public Alternative Schools,” New Schools Exchange 132 (March 31, 1976):4–13; and Robert Havighurst and Bernice Neugarten, Society and Education (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1975), p. 279.
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• For a discussion of alternative schools in relation to desegregation efforts in major urban areas, see Robert F. Amove and Toby Strout , “Alternative Schools and Cultural Pluralism,” Educational Research Quarterly 2 ( Winter 1978 ): 74 – 95
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• See Vernon Smith , Robert Barr and Daniel Burke , Alternatives in Education ( Bloomington , In. : Phi Delta Kappa , 1976 ); and Mario Fantini, Public Schools of Choice (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1973).
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• Estimate based on data from “Directory of Alternative Schools ,” Changing Schools ( Bloomington , In. : International Consortium for Options in Public Education , 1975 ); and Robert D. Barr, “The Growth of Alternative Public Schools: The 1975 ICOPE Report,” Changing Schools, No. 12 (1975):4–5; and Thomas Wolf, Michael Walker, and Robert A. Mackin, “Summary of the NASP Survey, 1974” (Amherst, Ma.: University of Massachusetts, National Alternative Schools Program), and by the same, an updated section entitled “Overall Implications,” p. 5; and Daniel Linden Duke and Irene Muzio, “How Effective Are Alternative Schools?—A Review of Recent Evaluations and Reports,” mimeographed (Stanford, Ca.: Stanford University, School of Education, 1976), p. 6.
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• See, for example, James Kennedy , Janet B. Mitchell , Lorraine V. Klerman , and Andrew Murphy , “A Day School Approach to Aggressive Adolescents,” Child Welfare 55 ( December 1976 ): 712 – 24
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• Martin Gold , “ Scholastic Experiences, Self-Esteem and Delinquent Behavior: A Theory for Alternative Schools ,” mimeographed ( Ann Arbor , Mi. : University of Michigan, Institute for Social Research , 1977 ); also see H.B. Kaplan “Sequelia of Self-Derogation: Predicting from a General Theory of Deviant Behavior,” Youth and Society 7 (1975).
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• Albert K. Cohen , Delinquent Boys: The Culture of the Gang ( Glencoe , Il. : The Free Press , 1955 ).
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• Travis Hirschi , Causes of Delinquency ( Berkeley : University of California Press , 1969 ), p. 132 .
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• Edgar Z. Friedenberg , The Vanishing Adolescent ( Boston : Beacon Press , 1964 ); and Coming of Age in America (New York: Random House, 1965).
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• Jonathan Kozol , Death at an Early Age ( Boston : Houghton Mifflin Co. , 1967 ); and The Night Is Dark and I Am Far From Home (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1975).
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• Herbert Kohl , Thirty-Six Children ( New York : New American Library , 1967 ); and Half the House (New York: Dutton, 1974).
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• Charles Silberman , Crisis in the Classroom ( New York : Random House , 1970 ).
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• William Maynard , “Basic Approaches to Violence and Vandalism,” Phi Delta Kappan 59 ( January 1978 ): 359 .
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• Ibid. , pp. 359 – 60
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• William Glasser , “Disorder in Our Schools: Causes and Remedies,” Phi Delta Kappan 59 ( January 1978 ): 331 – 33
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• “Directory of Alternative Schools ,” Changing Schools , 1975 ; also see Daniel L. Duke and Cheryl Perry, “Can Alternative Schools Succeed Where Benjamin Spock, Spiro Agnew, and B.F. Skinner Have Failed?,” mimeographed (Stanford, Ca.: Stanford University, School of Education, 1977), p. 10; and Duke and Muzio, “How Effective Are Alternative Schools?,” p. 51.
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• James M. McPartland and Edward L. McDill , Research on Crime in the Schools ( Baltimore , Md. : Center for Social Organization of Schools, Johns Hopkins University , 1975 ), p. 36 .
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• Michael Berger , Violence in the Schools: Causes and Remedies ( Bloomington In. : Phi Delta Kappa , 1974 ); cited in Smith et al., Alternatives in Education, p. 153.
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• Robert G. Barker and Paul V. Gump with Louise Shedd Barker et al., Big School, Small School: High School Size and Misbehavior ( Stanford , Ca. : Stanford University Press , 1964 ).
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• See, for example, Duke and Perry , “ Can Alternative Schools Succeed? ,” pp. 13 – 14
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• C. F. Cardinell , “ Relationship of Interaction of Selected Personality Characteristics of School Principal and Custodian with Sociological Variables to School Vandalism ,” (Ph.D. diss., Michigan State University, 1969 ).
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• N. Goldman , “A Sociopsychological Study of School Vandalism,” Crime and Delinquency 7 ( 1961 ): 221 – 30 cited from Richard A. Kulka, David W. Mann, and David N. Klingel, “School Crime as a Function of Person-Environment Fit,” mimeographed (Ann Arbor, Mi.: University of Michigan, Institute for Social Research, 1977), p. 31.
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• United Charities , Truancy Program '75 (Chicago, II.: Mandel Legal Aid Staff, n.d.), p. 11 ; Dade County Public Schools, Impact and Operational Features of Programs Designed to Modify Disruptive Behavior in the Dade County Public Schools, 1975–76, (Miami, PL: Planning and Evaluation Department, 1976), p. 42; David Thornton Moore, “Through Their Eyes: A Portrait of the Alternative Schools Project” (Syncote, Pa.: East Unit, Alternative Schools Project, 1974), pp. 8–9; Paul Hoover Bowman, “Effects of a Revised School Program on Potential Delinquents,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 332 (1959):58.
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• Winton M. Ahlstrom and Robert J. Havighurst , Four Hundred Losers: Delinquent Boys in High School ( San Francisco , Ca. : Jossey-Bass, Inc. , 1971 ), p. 223 .
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• Thomas Everett Baker , “ An Investigation of Teachers' and Students' Perceptions of Instructional Practices in Selected Conventional and Alternative Public Schools ,” (Ph.D. diss., Indiana University, 1976 ).
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• Wanda Nichols , “Teachers at Alternative School Report Few Problems with Unruly Students,” Louisville Courier-Journal Times , January 25 , 1976 , Section B, p. 1 .
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• Kennedy et al., “Day School Approach,” p. 716 .
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• Duke and Perry , “ Can Alternative Schools Succeed? ,” p. 19 .
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• McPartland and McDill , Research on Crime, p. 19 .
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• Gold , “ Scholastic Experiences ,” p. 24 .
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• Harold L. Cohen and James Filipczak , A New Learning Environment ( San Francisco , Ca. : Jossey-Bass, Inc. , 1971 ), p. 3 .
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• Ibid. , p. 5 .
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• Gold , “ Scholastic Experiences ,” p. 25 .
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• Kulka et al., “ Person-Environment Fit ,” p. 22 .
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• Robert Fizzell , “ Reschooling Society ,” (Ph.D. diss., Northwestern University, 1975 ).
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• School Violence and Vandalism , Models and Strategies for Change: Hearings before the Senate Subcommittee to Investigate Juvenile Delinquency, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate 94th Congress, September 17, 1975 , p. 9 .
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• “Student Referral Center—Reclaims Students ,” H1SD News , Vol. 2 , No. 14, Houston, Texas Independent School District; cited in “Alternatives to Suspension,” Your Schools, May 1975, pp. 5, 61. Your Schools is published by the South Carolina Community Relations Program of the American Friends Service Committee.
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• Kenneth Osvold , “ Options as a Remedy for School Violence ,” (Paper prepared for National Institute of Education Conference on Policy Issues in Educational Options, Chicago, Illinois, June 29-July 1, 1976 ), p. 27 .
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• See, for example, “Alternative to Suspension,” Your Schools , May 1975 ; the Chicago Public Education Project, “Alternatives to Suspension,” February 1977.
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• Marian Wright Edelman , School Suspensions: Are They Helping? ( Cambridge , Ma. : Children's Defense Fund , 1975 ).
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• See, for example, Friedenberg, Coming of Age; Charles E. Bidwell , “Students and Schools: Some Observations on Client Trust and Client-Serving Organizations,” in Organizations and Clients , ed. W.R. Rosengren and M. Lefton ( Columbus , Oh. : Charles E. Merrill , 1971 ), pp. 37 – 69
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• William G. Spady , “The Authority System of the School and Student Unrest: A Theoretical Exploration,” in Uses of the Sociology of Education , ed. C. Wayne Gordon , National Society for the Study of Education's 1974 Yearbook on Education (Chicago, II.: University of Chicago Press, 1974), p. 52 .
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• Advisory Commission, Office of Juvenile Justice Services , “ Information and Recommendations from the Task Force for Commission Action Regarding the Comprehensive Plan for Juvenile Justice ,” ( East Lansing , Mi. : Educational Considerations Task Force , 1976 ), p. 20 .
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• See, for example, McPartland and McDill , Research on Crime , pp. 23 – 25 and Joyce Epstein and James McPartland, “Effects of Open School Organization on Student Outcomes,” Report No. 194 (Baltimore, Md.: The Johns Hopkins University, 1975).
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• Lynne Miller , “ Patterns of Decision Making in Public Alternative Schools ” ( Amherst , Ma. : University of Massachusetts, National Alternative Schools Program , 1975 ), pp. 43 – 44
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• Scientific Analysis Corporation , A Preliminary Descriptive Analysis of the Berkeley Experimental Schools Program 1973–74 , Volume II ( San Francisco , Ca. : Scientific Analysis Corporation , 1974 ), p. 43 .
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• Institute for Scientific Analysis , A Descriptive Analysis of the Berkeley Experimental Schools Program 1974–75 , Volume I ( San Francisco , Ca. : Scientific Analysis Corporation, September 1 , 1975 ), p. 240 .
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• Osvold , “ Options as a Remedy ,” p. 10 .
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• Advisory Commission , “ Information and Recommendations ,” p. 17 .
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• Jane Frances Hogan , “ The Influence of School Organizational Properties on the Development of Future-Focused Role-Image ,” (Ph.D. diss., Indiana University, 1974 ); B.D. Singer, “The Future-Focused Role-Image,” in Learning for Tomorrow, ed. Alvin Toffler (New York: Random House, 1974); A.F. Poussaint, “The Black Child's Image of the Future,” in Learning for Tomorrow.
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• Arthur Stinchcombe , Rebellion in a High School ( Chicago , Il. : Quadrangle Books , 1964 ).
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• Ahlstrom and Havighurst , Four Hundred Losers , p. 223 .
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• Guy Nutriello , Catherine Grier Thomas J. Venables , eds., “ Exemplary Programs: On Site Reports on Alternative Schools in the Upper Atlantic Regions ” ( Trenton , N.J. : New Jersey State Department of Education, Division of Research, Planning and Evaluation, October 1975 ), p. 26 .
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• Martin Gold and David Mann , “Delinquency as Defense,” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 42 ( April 1975 ): 463 – 79
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• Joseph L. Massimo and Milton F. Shore , “The Effectiveness of a Comprehensive, Vocationally Oriented Psychotherapeutic Program for Adolescent Delinquent Boys,” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 33 ( July 1963 ): 439 .
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• Robert D. Barr , “Curriculum in Optional Alternative Schools,” (Paper presented at the National Institute of Education Conference on Policy Issues in Educational Options, Chicago, Illinois, June 29-July 1, 1976 ).
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• John W. Meyer , “The Charter: Conditions of Diffuse Socialization in Schools,” in Social Processes and Social Structures , ed. W.R. Scott ( New York : Holt, Rinehart and Winston , 1970 ), pp. 564 – 78
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• Robert F. Arnove , Student Alienation: A Venezuelan Study ( New York : Praeger , 1971 ).
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• Massimo and Shore , “ Effectiveness of a Comprehensive Program ,” p. 642 .
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• Advisory Commission , “ Information and Recommendations ,” p. 7 .
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• Ibid. , pp. 11 – 12
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• Cited from Marian Wright Edelman , “Winson and David Hudson's Dream,” Harvard Educational Review 45 ( November 1975 ): 436 ; data are found in Edelman, School Suspensions, Appendix B, Table 1.
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• Dade County Public Schools , Impact and Operational Features , p. 46 .
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• See, for example, description of West Campus in Scientific Analysis Corporation, A Retrospective Description of BUSD/BESP from Its Inception through June, 1973 , Report No. 1 ( San Francisco , Ca. : Scientific Analysis Corporation, September 1 , 1973 ), p. 29 .
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• Berkeley Unified School District , B.E.S.P Final Report, 1971–76 ( Berkeley , Ca. : BUSD , 1976 ), p. 69 .
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• See James E. Rosenbaum , Making Inequality ( New York : John Wiley and Sons , 1976 ); Michael Young, “An Approach to the Study of Curricula as Socially Organized Knowledge,” in Knowledge and Control, ed. Michael Young (London: Collier-Macmillan, 1971); Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis, Schooling in Capitalist America (New York: Basic Books, 1976), pp. 130–39, 194–211.
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• Dade County Public Schools , Impact and Operational Features, p. 36.
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• Jefferson County Board of Education , The RISE Program, Rearranging Instruction for Successful Education ( Louisville , Ky. : Curriculum Office , 1975 ), p. 8 .
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• Ibid. , pp. 48 – 55
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• Kennedy et al., “ Day School Approach ,” p. 718 .
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• For an extreme example of the use of a token economy, involving incarcerated youth, see Cohen and Filipzcak , New Learning Environment , pp. 7 – 9
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• For descriptions of peer group programs , see Roseville Area Schools, Focus ( Roseville , Mn. : Independent School District, No. 623, Focus Dissemination Project, May 1975 ); Edelman, School Suspensions, pp. 98–99; for an earlier program, see Lamar T. Empey and Jerome Rabow, “The Provo Experiment in Delinquency Rehabilitation,” American Sociological Review 26 (1961):679–96.
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• See, for example, American Friends Service, Chicago Public Education Project, “ Six Month Report ,” back page.
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• A personal interview with Professor Lynne Miller , director of the Follow-up NASP Study, Amherst, Ma., University of Massachusetts, School of Education, December 3, 1976 .
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• For an extreme example of reaching adolescent delinquents too late, see C. R. Jeffery and I. A. Jeffery , “Dropouts and Delinquents: An Experimental Program in Behavior Change,” Education and Urban Society 1 ( 1961 ): 325 – 26 cited in Ahlstrom and Havighurst, Four Hundred Losers, pp. 2–3.
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• Bowman , “ Revised School Program ,” pp. 53 , 61.
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• Ahlstrom and Havighurst , Four Hundred Losers , p. 5 .
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• Ibid. , p. 53 .
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• Ibid. , p. 94 .
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• Osvold , “ Options as a Remedy ,” Appendix A.
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• Robert F. Arnove with Toby Strout, “ Alternative Schools for Disruptive Youth ,” (Paper prepared for National Institute of Education/Educational Equity Group-School Social Relations under Grants NIE-P-76-0217 and P-77-0254, Washington, D.C., NIE, 1978 ).
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• Robert Arnove and Toby Strout , “ The Evolution, Uses, and Implications of Alternative Education ,” mimeographed ( Bloomington , In. : School of Education, Indiana University , 1977 ).
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