Notes
- J. Jarolimek , Social Studies Competencies and Skills ( New York : Macmillan , 1977 ), p. 8 .
- J. A. Banks , Teaching Strategies for the Social Studies: Inquiry, Valuing and Decision Making ( Reading , Ma. : Addison-Wesley , 1977 ), p. vii .
- M. Dunfer , Social Studies for the Real World ( Columbus , Oh. : Charles E. Merrill , 1978 ); T. Kaltsounis, Teaching Social Studies in the Elementary School (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1979); C.B. Wellington and J. Wellington, Teaching for Critical Thinking (Highstown, N.J.: McGraw-Hill, 1960).
- National Council for the Social Studies , Social Studies Curriculum Guidelines ( Washington , D.C. : National Council for the Social Studies , 1971 ).
- R. D. Anderson et al., Developing Children's Thinking Through Science ( Englewood Cliffs , N.J. : Prentice-Hall , 1970 ); W.K. Esler, Teaching Elementary Science (Belmont, Ca.: Wadsworth, 1973); C.H. Edwards and R.L. Fisher, Teaching Elementary Social Studies: A Competency Based Program (New York: Praeger, 1977); M.B. Rowe, Teaching Science as Continuous Inquiry (New York: McGraw Hill, 1978).
- Edwards and Fisher , Teaching Elementary Social Studies.
- Rowe , Teaching Science , p. 182 .
- E. Gross and P. Grambasch , University Goals and Academic Power ( Washington , D.C. : American Council on Education , 1968 ).
- J. Dewey , How We Think ( New York : D.C. Heath , 1933 ).
- Ibid. ; J. Dewey, Logic: The Theory of Inquiry (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1938).
- Dewey , How We Think , p. 9 .
- Dewey , Logic.
- J. Dewey , The Quest for Certainty ( New York : G.P. Putnam's , 1960 ).
- J. Dewey , “The Logic of Judgments of Practice,” Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Method 19 ( 1916 ): 505 – 23
- R. J. Bernstein , John Dewey ( New York : Washington Square , 1966 ); idem, Praxis and Action (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1971).
- Dewey , Logic.
- Dewey , Quest for Certainty.
- Dewey , Logic.
- Dewey , How We Think.
- R. H. Ennis , “A Concept of Critical Thinking,” The Harvard Educational Review 32 ( 1962 ): 81 – 111 S.B. Skinner, “The Myth of Teaching for Critical Thinking,” The Clearing House 45 (1971):572–76; G. Watson and E. Glaser, Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal Manual (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1964).
- M. Brabeck , “ The Relationship Between Critical Thinking Skills and Development of Reflective Judgment ” (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 1980 ); R.A. Mines, “Levels of Intellectual Development and Associated Critical Thinking Skills” (Ph.D. diss., University of Iowa, 1980).
- Brabeck , “ Relationship. ”
- K. S. Kitchener and R. F. Kitchener , “The Development of Natural Rationality: Can Formal Operations Account for It?,” in Social Development in Youth: Structure and Content , ed. J.A. Meacham and N.R. Santilli ( Basel , Switzerland : Karger , 1981 ).
- J. Broughton , “ The Development of Natural Epistemology in Adolescence and Early Adulthood ” (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1975 ); idem, “Beyond Formal Operations: Theoretical Thought in Adolescence,” Teachers College Record 79 (1977):88–97; C. Gilligan and J.M Murphy, “Development from Adolescence to Adulthood: The Philosopher and the Dilemma of the Fact,” New Directions in Child Development 5 (1979):85-99.
- P. L. Dressel , “How the Individual Learns Science,” in Rethinking Science Education , Fifty-ninth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education ( Chicago : University of Chicago , 1960 ).
- S. B. Skinner , “Cognitive Development: A Prerequisite for Critical Thinking,” The Clearing House 49 ( 1976 ): 292 – 99
- K. S. Kitchener , “Cognition, Metacognition, and Epistemic Cognition: A Three-Level Model of Cognitive Processing,” Human Development 26 ( 1983 ).
- W. G. Perry , Forms of Intellectual and Ethical Development in the College Years ( New York : Holt, Rinehart and Winston , 1968 ).
- O. J. Harvey , D. E. Hunt , and H. M. Schroder , Conceptual Systems and Personality Organization ( New York : Wiley , 1961 ).
- Broughton , “ Development ”; idem, “Beyond Formal Operations.”
- K. S. Kitchener and P. M. King , “Reflective Judgment: Concepts of Justification and Their Relationship to Age and Education,” Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 2 ( 1981 ): 89 – 116
- Ibid.
- N. Rescher , Plausible Reasoning ( Amsterdam : Van Gorcum , 1976 ), p. 5 .
- Judgment styles reported in the following studies are measured through an interview; see K.S. Kitchener, “Intellectual Development in Late Adolescents and Young Adults: Reflective Judgment and Verbal Reasoning” (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota) for a full description, and Kitchener and King, “Reflective Judgment” for reliability and validity data. Subjects are asked to answer orally a set of standardized questions about each of four dilemmas covering issues from science, social science, history, and religion. Responses to each question in the interview are scored independently by two raters using a 1 to 7 scale. The score indicates a match between a response and a reflective judgment rating rule. After scoring each response, a three numeral final score is used to summarize the response to the dilemma. The first score indicates the dominant reflective judgment stage and the second score represents the subdominant stage. If a third stage is apparent in the response a third score is assigned accordingly. For weighting purposes, if only two stages are used, the dominant score is doubled, i.e., 3, 3, 2. A mean score for each subject is then obtained by averaging both raters' scores across all four dilemmas. Mean scores reported in the following studies, therefore, correspond to the descriptions of stages in Table 1. They should be understood as a general reflection of the assumptions and judgment style individuals use most often when discussing intellectual dilemmas.
- P. M. King et al., “The Justification of Beliefs in Young Adults: A Longitudinal Study,” Human Development 26 ( 1983 ): 106 – 18
- Brabeck , “ Relationship ”; J. Lawson, “The Relationship Between Graduate Education and the Development of Reflective Judgment” (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 1980); Mines, “Intellectual Development”; C.C. Strange and P.M. King, “Intellectual Development and Its Relationship to Maturation During the College Years,” Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 2 (1981):281–95. E.R. Welfel, “How Students Make Judgments: Do Educational Level and Academic Major Make a Difference?,” Journal of College Student Personnel 23 (1982):490–97.
- See Perry , Intellectual and Ethical Development , for an elaboration of a similar point.
- R. D. Allen , “Intellectual Development and Understanding Science: Application of William Perry's Theory to Science Teaching,” Journal of College Teaching (in press).
- M. M. Brabeck , “Critical Thinking Skills and Reflective Judgment Development,” Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 3 ( 1982 ).
- Mines , “ Intellectual Development. ”
- P. K. Wood , “An Analysis of the Structural Relationship Between Two Tests of Critical Thinking and Reflective Judgment” (Master's Thesis, University of Iowa, 1980 ).
- Brabeck , “ Critical Thinking. ”
- Lawson , “ Graduate Education ”; S.P. Shoff, “The Significance of Age, Sex, and Type of Education on the Development of Reasoning in Adults” (Ph.D. diss., University of Utah, 1979); Strange and King, “Intellectual Development.”
- J. R. Rest , “The Impact of Higher Education on Moral Judgment Development” (Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association, Los Angeles, April 1981 ).
- K. Popper , Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge ( New York : Harper & Row , 1963 ), p. 50 .
- D. R. Hiley , “Relativism, Dogmatism and Rationality,” International Philosophical Quarterly ( 1979 ): 139 .
- I. Lakatos , The Methodology of Scientific Research Programs ( Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 1978 ).
- L. S. Vygotsky , “Interaction Between Learning and Development,” in Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Process , ed. L.S. Vygotsky ( Cambridge , Ma. : Harvard University Press , 1978 ).
- Rowe , Teaching Science , p. 8 .
- T. S. Kuhn , The Structure of Scientific Revolution ( Princeton : Princeton University , 1962 ).