References
- Robert L. Sinclair and J. Ghory , “Expanding Environments for Learning: The Making and Breaking of Learning Boundaries , “in For Every School a Community , ed. Robert L. Sinclair ( Boston : Institute for Responsive Education , 1983 ), p. 3 .
- Mario Fantini and Rene Cardenas , eds., Parenting in a Multicultural Society ( New York : Longmans , 1980 ).
- The Institute for Responsive Education in Boston has taken an assertive leadership role in helping community members develop effective relationships with schools. Its journal, Citizen Action in Education, reports on many successful effort and delineates specific strategies. Also see Robert H. Salisbury , Citizen Participation in the Public Schools ( Lexington , Mass. : Lexington Books , 1981 ).
- National Governors' Association , Time for Results: The Governors' 1991 Report on Education ( Washington , D.C. : Author , 1986 ) p. 3 .
- The notation, teacher → parent , implies teacher initiative in establishing quality teacher-to-parent relationships and interactions. It is used in this paper to imply a professional responsibility, one that goes beyond informal dialogue or casual conversation and is proactive rather than reactive. [Hereinafter, a regular hyphen replaces the arrow, but the intended meaning should be kept in mind.]
- The norm for isolation is systematically identified in the research literature. See, e.g., Judith W. Little , “Norms of Collegiality and Experimentation: Workplace Conditions of School Success,” American Educational Research Journal 19 ( Fall 1982 ): 325 – 340 Sharon Feiman-Nemser and Robert E. Floden, “The Cultures of Teaching,” in Handbook of Research on Teaching, 3rd ed., ed. Merlin C. Wittrock (New York: Macmillan, 1986), pp. 505–526.
- Paul F. Brandwein , On Renewing Schooling and Education ( New York : Harcourt Brace Jovanovich , 1981 ), p. 11 .
- For a review of the ecological theory of human development, see Urie Bronfenbrenner , The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design (Cambridge , Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1979 ). For a summary of the consequences of incongruency of family and classroom, and of functional differences of family and schools, see Donald A. Hansen, “Family-School Articulations: The Effects of Interaction Rule Mismatch,” American Educational Research Journal 23 (Winter 1986): 643–659; Eugene Litwak and Henry J. Meyer, “The School and the Family: Linking Organizations and External Primary Groups,” in The School in Society: Studies in the Sociology of Education, eds. Sam D. Sieber and David E. Wilder (New York: The Free Press, 1973), pp. 192–235.
- The findings of evaluation studies of these intervention programs are generally positive. See Louise B. Miller and Rondeall Bizzell, “Long-Term Effects of Four Pre-School Programs: Sixth, Seventh, and Eighth Grades ,” Child Development 54 ( June 1983 ): 727 – 741 Robert Rubin, Patricia Olmsted, Martha Szegda, Mary Wetherby, and Donald Williams, “Long-Term Effects of Parent Education Follow-Through Program Participation.” Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Montreal, Canada, April 1983).
- James Comer , School Power ( New York : The Free Press , 1980 ).
- Frederic Bates and Virginia Murray , “The School as a Behavior System,” Journal of Research and Development in Education 9 ( Fall 1975 ): 23 – 33
- I. J. Gordon , “ What Does Research Say about the Effects of Parent Involvement on Schooling? ” (Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, San Francisco, April 1978); Dale Adams, Parent Involvement: Parent Development (Berkeley, Calif.: Center for the Study of Parent Involvement, 1976).
- Jon D. Miller , “ Status Report of Preliminary Findings to Develop a Comprehensive Measure of Scientific Literacy. ” (Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Philadelphia, May 1986 ).
- Rhoda Becher , “Parent Involvement: A Review of Research and Principles of Successful Practice,” in Current Topics in Early Childhood Education , ed. Lillian Katz ( Norwood , N.J. : Ablex Publishing Corporation , 1985 ), p. 33 .
- Jere Brophy , Teachers' Cognitive Activities and Overt Behaviors (East Lansing , Mich. : The Institute for Research on Teaching, 1980 ; Occasional Paper No. 39); Dee Ann Spencer-Hall and Peter M. Hall, “Processes of Problem Identification and Resolution in Two-School Systems,” Studies of Symbolic Interaction 4 (1982): 191–216.
- David H. Ost , Fay Schillings , and Maria Lagana , “ Analysis of Teacher Perceptions of Training and Credential Programs ” ( Auburn , Alabama : The Truman Pierce Institute , 1987 ; unpublished report).
- David Williams and Janice Stallworth , “ A Survey of Educators regarding Parent Involvement in Education: Implications for Teacher Training ” (Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York, March 1982); Dan Lortie, Schoolteacher (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975); Gertrude McPherson, Smalltown Teacher (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1972).
- Joseph Blase , “The Politics of Teaching: The Teacher-Parent Relationship and the Dynamics of Diplomacy,” Journal of Teacher Education 38 ( March/April 1987 ): 53 – 60
- Bill Honig , Last Chance for Our Children (Menlo Park , Calif. : Addison-Wesley, 1985 ); “What Do America's Teachers Really Want?” Instructor 95 (January 1986): 20–23.
- Sara L. Lightfoot , Worlds Apart: Relationships between Families and Schools ( New York : Basic Books , 1978 ).
- Herbert Zimiles , The Changing American Child: The Perspective of Educators ( Washington , D.C. : National Commission on Excellence in Education , 1982 ).
- Herbert Walberg , “Families as Partners in Education Productively,” Phi Delta Kappan 65 ( February 1984 ): 397 – 400
- National Governors' Association , Time for Results , p. 67 .
- James Crawford , “Finn Cites Shortcomings of Existing Research on Schools,” Education Week 29 ( April 1987 ): 7 .
- Edward Gotts and Richard Purnell , “ A Classification of Parenting Programs, Supports and Resources” (Paper titled “Review of Major Programs and Activities in Parenting ,” attributed to Appalachia Education Laboratory, Charleston , W. Va. , 1979 ).
- Although it is clearly recognized that the needs of elementary school children and secondary school students are very different, the teacher-parent interaction differences are ignored. See Edward Gotts and Richard Purnell , “ Evaluation of School-Home Communication Strategies ” (Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, April 1986; ERIC Document No. ED244-376); John Arnn, “The School and the Community,” in Excellence in Education, ed. John Manigeri (Fort Worth, Texas: Texas Christian University Press, 1985) pp. 219–242.
- Johns Hopkins University, Center for Social Organization of Schools , “ Study of Teacher Practices of Parent Involvement: Results from Surveys of Teachers and Parents, Summary Report. ”.(Baltimore: Author, 1983 ; ERIC Document No. ED 328–558).
- National Governors' Association , Time for Results.
- Kathleen Cotton and William Savard , “ Parent Involvement in Instruction, K-12: Research Synthesis ” (Portland, Oregon: Northwest Regional Education Laboratory, 1982 ; ERIC Document No. ED 235–397); Comer, “Parents Participation.”
- Philip Tetlock , “Explaining Teacher Explanations of Pupil Performance: A Self-Presentation Interpretation,” Social Psychology Quarterly 43 ( September 1980 ): 283 – 290
- Thomas Lickona , “Parents as Moral Educators,” in Moral Education: Theory and Application , eds. Marvin Berkowita and Fritz Oser ( Hillsdale , N.J. : Erlbaum , 1985 ), pp. 127 – 146
- Sari Biklen , Teaching as an Occupation for Women: A Case Study of an Elementary School ( New York : Education Designs Group , 1983 ; ERIC Document No. ED 234–049).
- Ernest Boyer , High School: A Report on Secondary Education in America ( New York : Harper & Row , 1983 ); C. Emily Feistritzer, The Conditions of Teaching: A State by State Analyses (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1983); John Goodlad, A Place Called School (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1984).
- The literature is rich with personal and historical discussions of the relationships and roles of the teacher in American communities during the first half of the this century. See, e.g., Truman Pierce, Imperative of Lasting Public School Reform ( Auburn , Alabama : Truman Pierce Institute, Auburn University , 1987 ). These relationships changed as society changed, but an argument can be made that efforts to professionalize teacher education speeded the detachment of the teacher from parents and the community.
- Vito Perrone , Portraits of High Schools: A Supplement to High School ( Lawrenceville , N.J. : Princeton University Press , 1985 ), p. 334 .
- For the view of minority parents, see Shirley Achor , “ Una Buene Maestra/A Good Teacher: A Preliminary Report of Parental Views in a Texas School District ” (Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Applied Anthropology, Denver, March 1980); Honig, Last Chance for Our Children. However, some cross-cultural analysis suggests that American parents have lower expectations for their children than parents in other lands. See Harold W. Stevenson, Shin-yin Lee, and James Stigler “Mathematics Achievement of Chinese, Japanese and American Children,” Science 231 (February 14, 1986): 693–699; Harold W. Stevenson, James Stigler, Shin-yin Lee, and G. William Luckey, “Cognitive Performance and Academic Development of Japanese, Chinese and American Children,” Child Development 56 (June 1985): 718–734.
- Carnegie Forum on Education and the Economy , A Nation Prepared ( New York : Author , 1986 ); National Commission on Excellence in Education, A Nation at Risk (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983); Reginald G. Damerell, Education's Smoking Gun (New York: Freundlich Books, 1985). Demographic data and predictions are provided in, e.g., “A Population in Motion,” Education Week 5 (May 1986): 13–27; Barry Silverstein and Ronald Krate, Children of the Dark Ghetto: A Developmental Psychology (New York: Praeger, 1985).