Preventing falls from roofs: a critical review

References

• AGNEW , J. and SURUDA , A. J. 1993 . Age and fatal work-related falls . Human Factors , 35 : 731 – 736 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• AMBLARD , B. , CREMIEUX , J. , MARCHAND , A. R. and CARBLANC , A. 1985 . Lateral orientation and stabilization of human stance: static versus dynamic visual cues . Experimental Brain Research , 61 : 21 – 37 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BAGCHEE , A. , BHATTACHARYA , A. , SUCCOP , P. and MEDVEDOVIC , M. Use of visual cues in reducing the risk of fall during work at elevated and/or inclined surfaces . Abstracts of the Annual American Industrial Hygiene Conference & Exposition . May 17–23 , Dallas, TX. pp. 71 Fairfax, VA : American Industrial Hygiene Association .
   Google Scholar
• BELL , C. A. , STOUT , N. A. , BENDER , T. R. , CONROY , C. S. , CRAUSE , W. E. and MYERS , J. R. 1990 . Fatal occupational injuries in the United States, 1980 through 1985 . Journal of the American Medical Association , 263 : 3047 – 3050 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BERTHOZ , A. , LACOUR , M. , SOECHTING , J. F. and VIDAL , P. P. 1979 . “ The role of vision in the control of posture during linear motion ” . In Progress in Brain Research: Reflex Control of Posture and Movement , Edited by: Pompeiano , O. and Allum , J. 197 – 209 . New York : Elsevier .
   Google Scholar
• BLACK , S. E. , MAKI , B. E. and FERNIE , G. R. 1993 . “ Aging, imbalance, and falls ” . In The Vestibulo-Ocular Reflex and Vertigo , Edited by: Sharpe , J. A. and Barber , H. O. 317 – 335 . New York : Raven Press .
   Google Scholar
• BLES , W. , KAPTEYN , T. C. , BRANDT , T. and ARNOLD , F. 1980 . The mechanism of physiological height vertigo, II. Posturography . Acta Oto-laryngologica , 89 : 534 – 540 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BOBICK , T. G. , STANEVICH , R. L. , PIZATELLA , T. J. , KEANE , P. R. and SMITH , D. L. 1994 . Preventing falls through skylights and roof openings . Professional Safety , 39 : 33 – 37 .
   Google Scholar
• BRANDT , T. , ARNOLD , F. , BLES , W. and KAPTEYN , T. S. 1980 . The mechanism of physiological height vertigo, I. Theoretical approach and psychophysics . Acta Oto-laryngologica , 89 : 513 – 523 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BROWN , L. A. and FRANK , J. S. 1997 . Postural compensations to the potential consequences of instability: kinematics . Gait & Posture , 6 : 89 – 97 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS [BLS] . 1996 . Fatal Workplace Injuries in 1994: A Collection of Data and Analysis , Report 908 Washington, DC : US Department of Labor, BLS .
   Google Scholar
• BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS . 1997a . Fatal Workplace Injuries in 1995: A Collection of Data and Analysis , Report 913 Washington, DC : US Department of Labor, BLS .
   Google Scholar
• BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS . 1997b . National Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries, 1996 , News Release 266 Washington, DC : US Department of Labor, BLS .
   Google Scholar
• BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS . 1998a . Workplace Injuries and Illnesses in 1995, Case and Demographic Characteristics for Workplace Injuries and Illnesses Involving Days Away From Work, Supplemental Tables, Table 14 , Washington, DC : US Department of Labor, BLS .
   Google Scholar
• BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS . 1998b . Workplace Injuries and Illnesses in 1996, Case and Demographic Characteristics for Workplace Injuries and Illnesses Involving Days Away From Work, Supplemental Tables, Table 8 , Washington, DC : US Department of Labor, BLS .
   Google Scholar
• CHEN , H.-C. , SCHULTZ , A. B. , ASHTON-MILLER , J. A. , GIORDANI , B. , ALEXANDER , N. B. and GUIRE , K. E. 1996 . Stepping over obstacles: dividing attention impairs performance of old more than young adults . Journal of Gerontology , 51A : M116 – M122 .
   Google Scholar
• CHIOU , S. , BHATTACHARYA , A. and SUCCOP , P. A. 1996 . Effect of workers' shoe wear on objective and subjective assessment of slipperiness . American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal , 57 : 825 – 831 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CLARK , M. , JACKSON , P. and COHEN , H. H. 1996 . What you don't see can hurt you: understanding the role of depth perception in slip, trip, and fall incidents . Ergonomics in Design , 4 ( 3 ) : 16 – 21 .
   Google Scholar
• CLOE , W. W. 1979 . Occupational fatalities related to roofs, ceilings and floors as found in reports of OSHA fatality/catastrophe investigations , Washington, DC : Occupational Safety and Health Administration, US Department of Labor .
   Google Scholar
• COHEN , H. H. and COMPTON , D. A. J. 1982 . Fall accident patterns . Professional Safety , 27 ( 6 ) : 16 – 22 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• COMMISSARIS , D. A. and TOUSSAINT , H. M. 1997 . Load knowledge affects low-back loading and control of balance in lifting tasks . Ergonomics , 40 : 559 – 575 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CULVER , C. and CONNOLLY , C. 1994 . Prevent fatal falls in construction . Safety and Health , 150 ( 3 ) September : 72 – 75 .
   Google Scholar
• DAVIS , P. R. 1983 . Human factors contributing to slips, trips, and falls . Ergonomics , 26 : 51 – 59 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DEPARTMENT OF LABOR [DOL] . 1993 . Selected Characteristics of Occupations Defined in the Revised Dictionary of Occupational Titles , Washington, DC : US DOL, Employment and Training Administration .
   Google Scholar
• ELLIS , N. J. 1994 . Introduction to Fall Protection , 2nd ed. , 142 – 147 . Des Plaines, IL : American Society of Safety Engineers .
   Google Scholar
• EMERICH , R. , BHATTACHARYA , A. , SUCCOP , P. A. and BAGCHEE , A. Effect of roof inclination on postural stability and perceived sense of fall . Abstracts of the Annual American Industrial Hygiene Conference and Exposition . May 15–21 , LA, New Orleans. pp. 104 Fairfax, VA : American Industrial Hygiene Association .
   Google Scholar
• ENG , J. J. , WINTER , D. A. and PATLA , A. E. 1994 . Strategies for recovery from a trip in early and late swing during human walking . Experimental Brain Research , 102 : 339 – 349 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GILLEN , M. , FAUCETT , J. A. , BEAUMONT , J. J. and MCLOUGHLIN , E. 1997 . Injury severity associated with nonfatal construction falls . American Journal of Industrial Medicine , 32 : 647 – 655 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GORDON , A. M. , WESTLING , G. , COLE , K. J. and JOHANSSON , R. S. 1993 . Memory representations underlying motor commands used during manipulation of common and novel objects . Journal of Neurophysiology , 69 : 1789 – 1796 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GRIEVE , D. W. 1979a . The postural stability diagram: personal constraints on the static exertion of force . Ergonomics , 22 : 1155 – 1164 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GRIEVE , D. W. 1979b . Environmental constraints on the static exertion of force: PSD analysis in task-design . Ergonomics , 22 : 1165 – 1175 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GRIEVE , D. W. 1983 . Slipping due to manual exertion . Ergonomics , 26 : 61 – 72 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GRONQVIST , R. 1995 . Mechanism of friction and assessment of slip resistance of new and used footwear soles on contaminated floors . Ergonomics , 38 : 224 – 241 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HADDON , W. J. 1973 . Energy damage and the 10 countermeasure strategies . Journal of Trauma , 13 : 321 – 331 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• HARPER , F. C. , WARLOW , W. J. and CLARKE , B. L. 1967 . The forces applied to the floor by the foot in walking. II. Walking on a slope , National Building Studies Research Paper 32 1 – 8 . London : HMSO . Ministry of Technology
   Google Scholar
• HOFFMAN , M. and PAYNE , V. G. 1995 . The effects of proprioceptive ankle disk training on healthy subjects . Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy , 21 : 90 – 93 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HOLBEIN , M. A. and REDFERN , M. S. Postural stability while holding loads in various postures . Proceedings of Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 37th Annual Meeting . pp. 697 – 700 . Santa Monica, CA : Human Factors and Ergonomics Society .
   Google Scholar
• HOLBEIN , M. A. and REDFERN , M. S. Postural stability while walking and carrying loads in various postures . Proceedings of Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting . pp. 564 – 567 . Santa Monica, CA : Human Factors and Ergonomics Society .
   Google Scholar
• HSIAO , H. and STANEVICH , R. 1996 . “ Injuries and ergonomic applications in construction ” . In Occupational Ergonomics—Theory and Applications , Edited by: Bhattacharya , A. and McGlothlin , J. D. 545 – 568 . New York : Marcel Dekker .
   Google Scholar
• JAMES , D. I. 1983 . Rubbers and plastics in shoes and flooring: the importance of kinetic friction . Ergonomics , 26 : 83 – 99 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• JANICAK , C. A. 1998 . Fall-related deaths in the construction industry . Journal of Safety Research , 29 : 35 – 42 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• JOHNSON , D. and PAIN , K. 1987 . Occupational falls: a research review, Report, Research Branch , Alberta, , Canada : Occupational Health and Safety Division, Alberta Community and Occupational Health .
   Google Scholar
• JOHNSTON , R. B. III , HOWARD , M. E. , CAWLEY , P. W. and LOSSE , G. M. 1998 . Effect of lower extremity muscular fatigue on motor control performance . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 30 : 1703 – 1707 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KISNER , S. and FOSBROKE , D. E. 1994 . Injury hazards in the construction industry . Journal of Occupational Medicine , 36 : 137 – 143 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• LAJOIE , Y. , TEASDALE , N. , BARD , C. and FLEURY , M. 1993 . Attentional demands for static and dynamic equilibrium . Experimental Brain Research , 97 : 139 – 144 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LASLEY , D. J. , HAMER , R. D. , DISTER , R. and COHN , T. E. 1991 . Postural stability and stereoambiguity in man-designed visual environments . IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering , 38 : 808 – 813 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LEAMON , T. B. 1992 . The reduction of slip and fall injuries. Part II—The scientific basis (knowledge base) for the guide . International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics , 10 : 29 – 34 .
   Google Scholar
• LEAMON , T. B. and LI , K. W. Load carrying and slip length . Proceedings of Human Factors and Ergonomics Socciety 35th Annual Meeting . pp. 1159 – 1161 . Santa Monica, CA : Human Factors and Ergonomics Society .
   Google Scholar
• LECLERCQ , S. 1999 . The prevention of slipping accidents: a review and discussion of work related to the methodology of measuring slip resistance . Safety Science , 31 : 95 – 125 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LEE , D. N. and LISHMAN , J. R. 1975 . Visual proprioceptive control of stance . Journal of Human Movement Studies , 1 : 87 – 95 .
   Google Scholar
• LIN , L.-J. , CHIOU , F.-T. and COHEN , H. H. 1995 . Slip and fall accident prevention: a review of research, practice, and regulations . Journal of Safety Research , 26 : 203 – 212 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MAKI , B. E. 1997 . Gait changes in older adults: predictors of falls or indicators of fear? . Journal of the American Geriatrics Society , 45 : 313 – 320 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MAKI , B. E. , HOLLIDAY , P. J. and TOPPER , A. K. 1994 . A prospective study of postural balance and risk of falling in an ambulatory and independent elderly population . Journal of Gerontology: Medical Sciences , 49 : M72 – M84 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MAKI , B. E. , MCILROY , W. E. and PERRY , S. D. 1996 . Influence of lateral destabilization on compensatory stepping responses . Journal of Biomechanics , 29 : 343 – 353 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MCVAY , E. J. and REDFERN , M. S. 1994 . Rampway safety: foot forces as a function of rampway angle . American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal , 55 : 626 – 634 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MENZIES , R. G. and CLARKE , J. C. 1995 . Danger expectancies and insight in acrophobia . Behavioural Research and Therapy , 33 : 215 – 221 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MESURE , S. , AMBLARD , B. and CREMIEUX , J. 1997 . Effect of physical training on head-hip coordinated movements during unperturbed stance . NeuroReport , 8 : 3507 – 3512 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MYUNG , R. , SMITH , J. L. and LEAMON , T. B. 1993 . Subjective assessment of floor slipperiness . International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics , 11 : 313 – 319 .
   Google Scholar
• NARDONE , A. , TARANTOLA , J. , GALANTE , M. and SCHIEPPATI , M. 1998 . Time course of stabilometric changes after a strenuous treadmill exercise . Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation , 79 : 920 – 924 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NARDONE , A. , TARANTOLA , J. , GIORDANO , A. and SCHIEPPATI , M. 1997 . Fatigue effects on body balance . Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology , 105 : 309 – 320 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS [NBS] . 1975 . Roofing accidents data base , Report No. NBSGCR76-62 Washington, DC : NBS .
   Google Scholar
• NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH [NIOSH] . 1989 . NIOSH alert: request for assistance in preventing worker deaths and injuries from falls through skylights and roof openings , DHHS Publication 90-100 Cincinnati, OH : NIOSH .
   Google Scholar
• O'GARA , K. 1982 . California roofing and sheet metal work: analysis of work injuries and illnesses , Research Bulletin 6 San Francisco, CA : Division of Labour Statistics and Research .
   Google Scholar
• Occupational Safety and Health Administration [OSHA] . 1995 . OSHA directives, STD 3.1, Interim fall protection compliance guidelines for residential construction , Washington, DC : US Department of Labor .
   Google Scholar
• OWEN , D. H. 1985 . Maintaining posture and avoiding tripping. Optical information for detecting and controlling orientation and locomotion . Clinics in Geriatric Medicine , 1 : 581 – 599 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• PARSONS , T. J. and PIZATELLA , T. J. 1985 . Safety analysis of high risk activities within the roofing industry , Technical Report, NTIS PB-85163236 Springfield, VA : National Technical Information Service .
   Google Scholar
• PARSONS , T. J. , PIZATELLA , T. J. and COLLINS , J. W. 1986 . Safety analysis of high risk injury categories within the roofing industry . Professional Safety , 31 : 13 – 17 .
   Google Scholar
• PATLA , A. E. 1993 . “ Age-related changes in visually guided locomotion over different terrains: major issues ” . In Sensorimotor Impairment in the Elderly , Edited by: Stelmach , G. E. and Homberg , V. 231 – 252 . Dordrecht : Kluwer .
   Google Scholar
• PATLA , A. E. 1997a . Understanding the role of vision in the control of human locomotion . Gait & Posture , 5 : 54 – 69 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PATLA , A. E. 1997 . “ Slips, trips and falls: implications for rehabilitation and ergonomics ” . In Perspectives in Rehabilitation Ergonomics , Edited by: Kumar , S. 196 – 209 . London : Taylor & Francis .
   Google Scholar
• PAULUS , W. M. , STRAUBE , A. and BRANDT , T. 1984 . Visual stabilization of posture. Physiological stimulus characteristics and clinical aspects . Brain , 107 : 1143 – 1163 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PERRIN , P. , SCHNEIDER , D. , DEVITERNE , D. , PERROT , C. and CONSTANTINESCU , L. 1998 . Training improves the adaptation to changing visual conditions in maintaining human posture control in a test of sinusoidal oscillation of the support . Neuroscience Letters , 245 : 155 – 158 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PETERKA , R. J. and BENOLKEN , M. S. 1995 . Role of somatosensory and vestibular cues in attenuating visually induced human postural sway . Experimental Brain Research , 105 : 101 – 110 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PRATER , K. , CRISERA , R. A. and FIDELL , S. 1975 . Behavior analysis of workers and job hazards in the high risk construction occupation of roofing, NIOSH Research Report , NIOSH Contract 099-72-0121 Los Angeles, CA : Theodore Barry and Associates .
   Google Scholar
• REDFERN , M. S. and BIDANDA , B. 1994 . Slip resistance of the shoe-floor interface under biomechanically relevant conditions . Ergonomics , 37 : 511 – 524 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• REDFERN , M. S. and MCVAY , E. J. Slip potentials on ramps . Proceedings of Human Factors and Ergonomic s Society 37th Annual Meeting . pp. 701 – 704 . Santa Monica, CA : Human Factors and Ergonomics Society .
   Google Scholar
• REDFERN , M. S. , MOORE , P. L. and YARSKY , C. M. 1997 . The influence of flooring on standing balance among older persons . Human Factors , 39 : 445 – 455 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• RIESER , J. J. , ASHMEAD , D. H. , TALOR , C. R. and YOUNGQUIST , G. A. 1990 . Visual perception and the guidance of locomotion without vision to previously seen targets . Perception , 19 : 675 – 689 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ROBBINS , S. , WAKED , E. and RAPPEL , R. 1995 . Ankle taping improves proprioception before and after exercise in young men . British Journal of Sports Medicine , 29 : 242 – 247 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ROBBINS , S. , WAKED , E. , GOUW , G. J. and MCCLARAN , J. 1994 . Athletic footwear affects balance in men . British Journal of Sport Medicine , 28 : 117 – 122 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ROBBINS , S. , WAKED , E. , ALLARD , P. , MCCLARAN , J. and KROUGLICOF , N. 1997 . Foot position awareness in younger and older men—the influence of footwear sole properties . Journal of the American Geriatric Society , 45 : 61 – 66 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ROBERTSON , S. and ELLIOTT , D. 1996 . The influence of skill in gymnastics and vision on dynamic balance . International Journal of Sport Psychology , 27 : 361 – 368 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ROBERTSON , S. , COLLINS , J. , ELLIOTT , D. and STARKES , J. 1994 . The influence of skill and intermittent vision on dynamic balance . Journal of Motor Behavior , 26 : 333 – 339 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ROTHBAUM , B. O. , HODGES , L. F. , WATSON , B. A. , KESSLER , G. D. and OPDYKE , D. 1996 . Virtual reality exposure therapy in the treatment of fear of flying: a case report . Behaviour Research and Therapy , 34 : 477 – 481 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ROTHBAUM , B. O. , HODGES , L. F. , KOOPER , R. , OPDYKE , D. , WILLFORD , J. S. and NORTH , M. 1995 . Effectiveness of computer-generated (Virtual Reality) graded exposure in the treatment of acrophobia . American Journal of Psychiatry , 152 : 626 – 628 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• RUSER , J. W. 1995 . A Relative Risk Analysis of Workplace Fatalities, Fatal Workplace Injuries In 1993: A Collection of Data and Analysis , Report 891 18 – 22 . Washington, DC : US Department of Labor, BLS .
   Google Scholar
• SCHIEB , D. A. Walkway surface heights and ground reaction forces . Proceedings of the Fourteenth Southern Biomedical Engineering Conference . April 7–9 , Shreveport, LA. pp. 175 – 178 . Piscataway, NJ : IEEE Service Center .
   Google Scholar
• SELIGA , R. , BHATTACHARYA , A. , SUCCOP , P. , WICKSTROM , R. , SMITH , D. and WILLEKE , K. 1991 . Effect of work load and respirator wear on postural stability, heart rate, and perceived exertion . American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal , 52 : 417 – 422 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SHUMWAY-COOK , A. , BALDWIN , M. , POLISSAR , N. L. and GRUBER , W. 1997 . Predicting the probability for falls in community-dwelling older adults . Physical Therapy , 77 : 812 – 819 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SINAI , M. J. , OOI , T. L. and HE , Z. J. 1998 . Terrain influences the accurate judgement of distance . Nature , 395 : 497 – 500 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SMITH , G. S. and VEAZIE , M. A. 1998 . “ Principles of prevention: the public health approach to reducing injuries in the workplace ” . In Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety , 4th ed. , Edited by: Stellman , J. M. 56.26 – 56.30 . Geneva : International Labor Office .
   Google Scholar
• SPARTO , P. J. , PARNIANPOUR , M. , REINSEL , T. E. and SIMON , S. 1997 . The effect of fatigue on multijoint kinematics, coordination, and postural stability during a repetitive lifting test . Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy , 25 : 3 – 12 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• STOFFREGEN , T. A. 1985 . Flow structure versus retinal location in the optical control of stance . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance , 11 : 554 – 565 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• STOFFREGEN , T. A. and RICCIO , G. E. 1988 . An ecological theory of orientation and the vestibular system . Psychological Review , 95 : 3 – 14 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• STOUT , N. A. , JENKINS , E. L. and PIZATELLA , T. J. 1996 . Occupational injury mortality rates in the United States: Changes from 1980 to 1989 . American Journal of Public Health , 86 : 73 – 77 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SUN , J. , WALTERS , M. , SVENSSON , N. and LLOYD , D. 1996 . The influence of surface slope on human gait characteristics: a study of urban pedestrians walking on an inclined surface . Ergonomics , 39 : 677 – 692 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SURUDA , A. , FOSBROKE , D. and BRADDEE , R. 1995 . Fatal work-related falls from roofs . Journal of Safety Research , 26 : 1 – 8 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• TINETTI , M. E. and SPEECHLEY , M. 1989 . Prevention of falls among the elderly . New England Journal of Medicine , 320 : 1055 – 1059 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• TOSCANO , G. 1997 . Dangerous jobs, Fatal Workplace Injuries in 1995: A Collection of Data and Analysis , Report 913 38 – 41 . Washington, DC : US Department of Labor, BLS .
   Google Scholar
• TOUSSAINT , H. M. , COMMISSARIS , D. A. and BEEK , P. J. 1997a . Anticipatory postural adjustments in the back and leg lift . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 29 : 1216 – 1224 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• TOUSSAINT , H. M. , COMMISSARIS , D. A. , HOOZEMANS , M. J. , OBER , M. J. and BEEK , P. J. 1997b . Anticipatory postural adjustments before load pickup in a bi-manual whole body lifting task . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 29 : 1208 – 1215 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• US DEPARTMENT OF LABOR [DOL] . 1999a . 29 Code of Federal Regulations, Part 1926 Safety and Health Regulations for Construction, Subpart M—Fall Protection , Washington, DC : US Government Printing Office .
   Google Scholar
• US DEPARTMENT OF LABOUR . 1999b . 29 Code of Federal Regulations, Part 1910 Occupational Safety and Health Standards, Walking-Working Surfaces , Washington, DC : US Government Printing Office .
   Google Scholar
• WADE , M. G. and JONES , G. 1997 . The role of vision and spatial orientation in the maintenance of posture . Physical Therapy , 77 : 619 – 628 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WAKED , E. , ROBBINS , S. and MCCLARAN , J. 1997 . The effect of footwear midsole hardness and thickness on proprioception and stability in older men . Journal of Testing & Evaluation , 25 : 143 – 148 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WARNER , K. G. and DEMLING , R. H. 1986 . The pathophysiology of free-fall injury . Annals of Emergency Medicine , 15 : 1088 – 1093 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WARREN , W. H. , KAY , B. A. and YILMAZ , E. H. 1996 . Visual control of posture during walking: functional specificity . Journal of Experimental Psychology , 22 : 818 – 838 .
   Google Scholar
• WILSON , M. 1996 . Slip resistance characteristics of footwear solings assessed using the SATRA friction tester . Journal of Testing & Evaluation , 24 : 377 – 385 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WINTER , D. A. 1991 . The Biomechanics and Motor Control of Human Gait: Normal, Elderly and Pathological , 2nd ed. , Waterloo, Ontario : University of Waterloo Press .
   Google Scholar
• WOOLLACOTT , M. H. 1983 . Effects of ethanol on postural adjustments in humans . Experimental Neurology , 80 : 55 – 68 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WOOLLACOTT , M. H. and TANG , P. F. 1997 . Balance control during walking in the older adult: research and its implications . Physical Therapy , 77 : 646 – 660 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• YARDLEY , L. , WATSON , S. , BRITTON , J. , LEAR , S. and BIRD , J. 1995 . Effect of anxiety arousal and mental stress on the vestibulo-ocular reflex . Acta Oto-laringologica , 115 : 597 – 602 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ZIMOLONG , B. 1985 . “ Hazard perception and risk estimation in accident causation ” . In Trends in Ergonomics/Human Factors II , Edited by: Eberts , R. E. and Eberts , C. G. 463 – 470 . Amsterdam : Elsevier .
   Google Scholar
• ZOHAR , D. 1978 . Why do we bump into things while walking? . Human Factors , 20 : 671 – 679 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar