Counteracting skill decay: four refresher interventions and their effect on skill and knowledge retention in a simulated process control task

References

• Anderson, J. R.1983. The Architecture of Cognition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Annett, J.1979. “Memory for Skill.” In Applied Problems in Memory, edited by M. M.Gruneberg, and P. E.Morris, 213–247. London: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Arthur, W., W.BennettJr, P. L.Stanush, and T. L.McNelly. 1998. “Factors That Influence Skill Decay and Retention: A Quantitative Review and Analysis.” Human Performance11: 57–101.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arthur, W., Jr, E. A.Day, A. J.Villado, P. R.Boatman, V.Kowollik, W.BennettJr, and A.Bhupatkar. 2010. “The Effect of Distributed Practice on Immediate Posttraining, and Long Term Performance on a Complex Command-and-Control Simulation Task.” Human Performance23: 428–445.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bainbridge, L.1983. “Ironies of Automation. Increasing Levels of Automation Can Increase, Rather Than Decrease, the Problems of Supporting the Human Operator.” Automatica19: 775–779.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bjork, R. A.2011. “On the Symbiosis of Learning, Remembering, and Forgetting.” In Successful Remembering and Successful Forgetting: A Festschrift in Honor of Robert A. Bjork, edited by A. S.Benjamin, 1–22. London: Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bjork, R. A., and E. L.Bjork. 1992. “A New Theory of Disuse and an Old Theory of Stimulus Fluctuation.” In From Learning Processes to Cognitive Processes: Essays in Honor of William K. Estes, edited by A.Healy, S.Kosslynm, and R.Shiffrin, 35–67. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Bjork, R. A., and E. L.Bjork. 2006. “Optimizing Treatment and Instruction: Implications of the New Theory of Disuse.” In Memory and Society. Psychological Perspectives, edited by L. G.Nilsson, and N.Ohta, 109–134. Hove: Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bodilly, S., J. Fernandez, J. Kimborough, and S. Purnell. 1986. Individual Ready Reserve Skill Retention and Refresher Training Options. Rand Note N-2535-RA, prepared for the Assistant Secretary of Defense/Reserve Affairs. Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corperation. http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/notes/2007/N2535.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Burkolter, D., A. Kluge, S. German, and B. Grauel. 2009. “Waste Water Treatment Simulation (WaTr Sim): Validation of a New Process Control Simulation Tool for Experimental Training Research.” Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 53rd Annual Meeting, Santa Monica, October, 1969–1973.
   Google Scholar
• Burkolter, D., A.Kluge, K.Schüler, J.Sauer, and S.Ritzmann. 2007. “Cognitive Requirement Analysis to Derive Training Models for Controlling Complex Systems.” In Human Factors Issues in Complex System Performance, edited by B.Hockey, and D.de Waard, 475–485. Ashgate: Aldershot.
   Google Scholar
• Casner, S. M., R. W.Geven, and K. T.Williams. 2013. “The Effectiveness of Airline Pilot Training for Abnormal Events.” Human Factors55: 477–485.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Childs, J. M., W. D.Spears, and W. W.Prophet. 1983. Private Pilot Flight Skill Retention 8, 16, and 24 Month Following Certification. DOT/FAA/CT-83/34, Seville TR-83-17. Washington, DC: Federal Aviation Administration.
   Google Scholar
• Colquitt, J. A., J. A.LePine, and R. A.Noe. 2000. “Toward an Integrative Theory of Training Motivation: A Meta-Analytic Path Analysis of 20 Years of Research.” Journal of Applied Psychology85: 678–707.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooper, G., S.Tindall-Ford, P.Chandler, and J.Sweller. 2001. “Learning by Imagining.” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied7: 6–82.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Driskell, J. E., C.Copper, and A.Moran. 1994. “Does Mental Practice Enhance Performance?” Journal of Applied Psychology79: 481–492.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ebbatson, M., D.Harris, J.Huddlestone, and R.Sears. 2010. “The Relationship Between Manual Handling Performance and Recent Flying Experience in Air Transport Pilots.” Ergonomics53: 268–277.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farr, M. J.1987. The Long-Term Retention of Knowledge and Skills. A Cognitive and Instructional Perspective. New York: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Foss, M. A., M.Fabiani, A. M.Mane, and E.Donchin. 1989. “Unsupervised Practice: The Performance of the Control Group.” Acta Psychologica71: 23–51.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ginns, P.2005. “Imagining Instructions: Mental Practice in Highly Cognitive Domains.” Australian Journal of Education49: 128–140.
   Google Scholar
• Ginzburg, S., and E. M.Dar-El. 2000. “Skill Retention and Relearning – A Proposed Cyclical Model.” Journal of Workplace Learning12: 327–332.
   Google Scholar
• Hagman, J. D., and A. M.Rose. 1983. “Retention of Military Tasks: A Review.” Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society25: 199–213.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karpicke, J. D., and H. L.Roediger. 2008. “The Critical Importance of Retrieval for Learning.” Science319: 966–968.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaye, W., M. E.Mancini, and S. F.Rallis. 1987. “Advanced Cardiac Life Support Refresher Course Using Standardized Objective-Based Mega Code Testing.” Critical Care Medicine15: 55–60.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, J. W., F. E.Ritter, and R. J.Koubek. 2013. “An Integrated Theory of Skill Acquisition and Retention in the Three Stages of Learning.” Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science14: 22–37.
   Google Scholar
• Kluge, A.In press. The Acquisition of Knowledge and Skills for Task Work and Team Work to Control Complex Technical Systems. A Cognitive and Macroergonomic Perspective. Dortrecht: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Kluge, A.2004. Wissenserwerb für das Steuern Komplexer Technischer Systeme [Knowledge Acquisition for Open Loop Controlling of Complex Technical Systems.]. Lengerich: Pabst.
   Google Scholar
• Kluge, A., D.Burkolter, and B.Frank. 2012. “Being Prepared for the Infrequent: A Comparative Study of Two Refresher Training Approaches and Their Effects on Temporal and Adaptive Transfer in a Process Control Task.” Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 56th2437–2441.
   Google Scholar
• Kluge, A., B. Frank, and J. Miebach. 2013. Measuring Skill Decay in Process Control – Results from 4 Experiments with a Simulated Process Control Task, Paper Presented at the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society – Europe Chapter, Turin.
   Google Scholar
• Kluge, A., J.Sauer, D.Burkolter, and S.Ritzmann. 2010. “Designing Training for Temporal and Adaptive Transfer: A Comparative Evaluation of Three Training Methods for Process Control Tasks.” Journal of Educational Computing Research43: 327–353.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kluge, A., J.Sauer, K.Schüler, and D.Burkolter. 2009. “Designing Training for Process Control Simulators: A Review of Empirical Findings and Current Practices.” Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science10: 489–509.
   Google Scholar
• Kontogiannis, T., and A.Shepherd. 1999. “Training Conditions and Strategic Aspects of Skill Transfer in a Simulated Process Control Task.” Human-Computer Interaction14: 355–393.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kromann, C. B., M. L.Jensen, and C.Ringsted. 2009. “The Effect of Testing on Skills Learning.” Medical Education43: 21–27.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malakis, S., and T.Kontogiannis. 2012. “Refresher Training for Air Traffic Controllers: Is it Adequate to Meet the Challenges of Emergencies and Abnormal Situations?” The International Journal of Aviation Psychology22: 59–77.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martinussen, M., and D. R.Hunter. 2010. Aviation Psychology and Human Factors. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mattoon, J. S.1994. “Designing Instructional Simulations: Effects of Instructional Control and Type of Training Task on Display-Interpretation Skills.” The International Journal of Aviation Psychology4: 189–209.
   Google Scholar
• McBride, S. E., W. A.Rogers, and A. D.Fisk. 2013. “Understanding Human Management of Automation Failure.” Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science. Online first June 17, 2013. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1463922X.2013.817625..
   Google Scholar
• McDaniel, M. A., H. L.Roediger, and K. B.McDermott. 2007. “Generalizing Test-Enhanced Learning from the Laboratory to the Classroom.” Psychonomic Bulletin & Review14: 200–206.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miebach, J.2013. The Impact of Work Experience on Skill Retention of Complex Work Tasks in High Risks Working Environments. An Experimental Study in a Simulation Environment. Master thesis, University of Duisburg-Essen.
   Google Scholar
• Morris, N. M., and W. B.Rouse. 1985. “Review and Evaluation of Empirical Research in Troubleshooting.” Human Factors27: 503–530.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naylor, J. C., and G. E. Briggs. 1961. Long-Term Retention of Learned Skills: A Review of the Literature, ASD Technical Report, 61–390. Laboratory of Aviation Psychology, The Ohio State University and the OSU Research Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• O' Hara, J. M.1990. “The Retention of Skills Acquired Through Simulator-Based Training.” Ergonomics33: 1143–1153.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Onash, L., C. D. Wickens, H. Li, and D. Manzey. 2013. “Human Performance Consequences of Stages and Levels of Automation: An Integrated Meta-Analysis.” Human Factors, published online first August 20, 2013. doi:10.1177/0018720813501549.
   Google Scholar
• Ormerod, T. C., and A.Shepherd. 2004. “Using Task Analysis for Information Requirements Specification: The Sub-Goal Template (SGT) Method.” In The Handbook of Task Analysis for Human-Computer Interaction, edited by D.Diaper, and N. A.Stanton,347–365. Mawah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
   Google Scholar
• Parasuraman, R., T. B.Sheridan, and C. D.Wickens. 2000. “A Model for Types and Levels of Human Interaction with Automation.” IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics – Part A: Systems and Humans30: 286–297.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pashler, H., D.Rohrer, N. J.Cepeda, and S. K.Carpenter. 2007. “Enhancing Learning and Retarding Forgetting: Choices and Consequences.” Psychonomic Bulletin & Review14: 187–193.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patrick, J.1992. Training: Research and Practice. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Roediger, H. L., and J. D.Karpicke. 2006. “The Power of Testing Memory. Basic Research and Implications for Educational Practice.” Perspectives on Psychological Science1: 181–210.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sauer, J., D.Burkolter, A.Kluge, S.Ritzmann, and K.Schüler. 2008. “The Effects of Heuristic Rule Training on Operator Performance in a Simulated Process Control Environment.” Ergonomics51: 953–967.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sauer, J., G. R. J.Hockey, and D.Wastell. 2000. “Effects of Training on Short- and Long-Term Skill Retention in a Complex Multiple-Task Environment.” Ergonomics43: 2043–2064.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schendel, J. D., and J. D.Hagman. 1982. “On Sustaining Procedural Skills over a Prolonged Retention Interval.” Journal of Applied Psychology67: 605–610.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schendel, J. D., J. L.Shields, and M. S.Katz. 1978. Retention of Motor Skills: Review (Technical Paper 313). Alexandria: U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.
   Google Scholar
• Schneider, W.1985. “Training High - Performance Skills: Fallacies and Guidelines.” Human Factors27: 285–300.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schneider, W.1999. “Automaticity.” In The MIT Enzyclopedia of the Cognitive Science, edited by R. A.Wilson and F. C.Keil, 63–64. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Sun, R., E.Merrill, and T.Peterson. 2001. “From Implicit Skills to Explicit Knowledge: A Bottom-Up Model of Skill Learning.” Cognitive Science25: 203–244.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sun, R., P.Slusarz, and C.Terry. 2005. “The Interaction of the Explicit and the Implicit in Skill Learning: A Dual-Process Approach.” Psychological Review112: 159–192.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vincenzi, D. A., J. A.Wise, M.Mouloua, and P. A.Hancock. (2009). Human Factors in Simulation and Training. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
   Google Scholar
• Walley, S.1995. “Mental Rehearsal Techniques for Reducing Skill Decay of Unemployed Commercial Pilots.” In Aviation Psychology: Training and Selection, edited by N. Johnston, R. Fuller, and N. McDonald. Proceedings of the 21st Conference of the European Association for Aviation Psychology (EAAP), 215–221. Reprint. Aldershot: Avebury Aviation/Ashgate. 1996.
   Google Scholar
• Wickens, C. D., and J. G.Hollands. 2000. Engineering Psychology and Human Performance. 3rd ed.Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
   Google Scholar
• Wonderlic Inc. 2002. Wonderlic Personnel Test. Libertyville, CA: Wonderlic Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Woollard, M., R.Whitfield, R. G.Newcombe, M.Coquhoun, N.Vetter, and D.Chamberlain. 2006. “Optimal Refresher Training Intervals for AED and CPR Skills: A Randomised Controlled Trial.” Resuscitation71: 237–247.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar