Additional helmet and pack loading reduce situational awareness during the establishment of marksmanship posture

References

• Alem, N. M., M. D. Meyer, and J. P. Albano. 1995. Effects of Head Supported Devices on Pilot Performance During Simulated Helicopter Rides. DTIC Document. Fort Rucker, AL: Aeromedical Research Lab, U.S. ARMY.
   Google Scholar
• Aoki, M., K. Matsunami, X. Y. Han, H. Yamada, T. Muto, and Y. Ito. 2001. “Neck Muscle Responses to Abrupt Vertical Acceleration in the Seated Human.” Experimental Brain Research 140 (1): 20–24.10.1007/s002210100804
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Attwells, R. L., S. A. Birrell, R. H. Hooper, and N. J. Mansfield. 2006. “Influence of Carrying Heavy Loads on Soldiers’ Posture, Movements and Gait.” Ergonomics 49 (14): 1527–1537.10.1080/00140130600757237
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baker, W. D., and N. J. Mansfield. 2010. “Effects of Horizontal Whole-body Vibration and Standing Posture on Activity Interference.” Ergonomics 53 (3): 365–374.10.1080/00140130903402242
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Batschelet, E. 1981. Circular Statistics in Biology. London: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bernstein, N. A. 1996. “Essay 5: Levels of construction of movements.” In On Dexterity and Its Development, edited by M. L. Latash and M. T. Turvey, 115–170. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Billing, D. C., A. J. Silk, P. J. Tofari, and A. P. Hunt. 2015. “Effects of Military Load Carriage on Susceptibility to Enemy Fire During Tactical Combat Movements.” Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 29: S134–S138.10.1519/JSC.0000000000001036
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blackburn, J. T., and D. A. Padua. 2008. “Influence of Trunk Flexion on Hip and Knee Joint Kinematics During a Controlled Drop Landing.” Clinical Biomechanics 23 (3): 313–319.10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2007.10.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blackburn, J. T., and D. A. Padua. 2009. “Sagittal-plane Trunk Position, Landing Forces, and Quadriceps Electromyographic Activity.” Journal of Athletic Training 44 (2): 174–179.10.4085/1062-6050-44.2.174
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bloomberg, J., M. Reschke, W. Huebner, and B. Peters. 1992. “The Effects of Target Distance on Eye and Head Movement During Locomotion.” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 656 (1): 699–707.10.1111/nyas.1992.656.issue-1
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Blouin, J.-S., M. Descarreaux, A. Bélanger-Gravel, M. Simoneau, and N. Teasdale. 2003. “Self-initiating a Seated Perturbation Modifies the Neck Postural Responses in Humans.” Neuroscience Letters 347 (1): 1–4.10.1016/S0304-3940(03)00632-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chow, D. H., M. L. Kwok, J. C. Cheng, M. L. Lao, A. D. Holmes, A. Au-Yang, F. Y. Yao, and M. S. Wong. 2006. “The Effect of Backpack Weight on the Standing Posture and Balance of Schoolgirls with Adolescent Idiopathic Scoliosis and Normal Controls.” Gait & Posture 24 (2): 173–181.10.1016/j.gaitpost.2005.08.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeShaw, J., and S. Rahmatalla. 2014. “Effective Seat-to-head Transmissibility Under Combined-axis Vibration and Multiple Postures.” International Journal of Vehicle Performance 1 (3–4): 235–253.10.1504/IJVP.2014.069108
   Google Scholar
• Endsley, M. R. 1988. “Design and Evaluation for Situation Awareness Enhancement.” Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting 32 (2): 97–101.
   Google Scholar
• Endsley, M. R., and E. O. Kiris. 1995. “The Out-of-the-loop Performance Problem and Level of Control in Automation.” Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 37 (2): 381–394.10.1518/001872095779064555
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Full, R. J., and D. E. Koditschek. 1999. “Templates and Anchors: Neuromechanical Hypotheses of Legged Locomotion on Land.” Journal of Experimental Biology 202 (23): 3325–3332.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaur, S. J., V. V. Joshi, B. Aravindakshan, and A. S. Aravind. 2013. “Determination of Helmet Cg and Evaluation of Neck Injury Potentials Using ‘Knox Box Criteria’ and Neck Torque Limits.” Indian Journal of Aerospace Medicine 57 (1): 37–44.
   Google Scholar
• Gibson, J. J. 1958. “Visually Controlled Locomotion and Visual Orientation in Animals.” British Journal of Psychology 49 (3): 182–194.10.1111/bjop.1958.49.issue-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gottlieb, G. L. 1991. “The Dynamic Control of Single Joint Movements.” In Tutorials in Motor Neuroscience, edited by J. Requin and G. E. Stelmach, 499–515. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic.10.1007/978-94-011-3626-6
   Google Scholar
• Graafland, M., and M. P. Schijven. 2013. “A Serious Game to Improve Situation Awareness in Laparoscopic Surgery.” In Games for Health: Proceedings of the 3rd European Conference on Gaming and Playful Interaction in Health Care, edited by B. Schouten, S. Fedtke, T. Bekker, M. Schijven, and A. Gekker, 173–182. Springer Science & Business Media.
   Google Scholar
• Harrison, M. F., B. Coffey, W. J. Albert, and S. L. Fischer. 2015. “Night Vision Goggle-induced Neck Pain in Military Helicopter Aircrew: A Literature Review.” Aerospace Medicine and Human Performance 86 (1): 46–55.10.3357/AMHP.4027.2015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harrison, M. F., K. A. Forde, W. J. Albert, J. C. Croll, and J. P. Neary. 2016. “Posture and Helmet Load Influences on Neck Muscle Activation.” Aerospace Medicine and Human Performance 87 (1): 48–53.10.3357/AMHP.4301.2016
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hasselquist, L., C. K. Bensel, B. Corner, and K. N. Gregorczyk. 2012. An Investigation of Three Extremity Armor Systems: Determination of Physiological, Biomechanical, and Physical Performance Effects and Quantification of Body Area Coverage. DTIC Document. Massachusetts, MA: Army Natick Soldier Research Development and Engineering Center, U.S. ARMY.
   Google Scholar
• Holbein, M. A., and M. S. Redfern. 1997. “Functional Stability Limits While Holding Loads in Various Positions.” International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 19 (5): 387–395.10.1016/S0169-8141(96)00023-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holt, K. G., R. C. Wagenaar, M. Kubo, M. E. LaFiandra, and J. P. Obusek. 2005. “Modulation of Force Transmission to the Head While Carrying a Backpack Load at Different Walking Speeds.” Journal of Biomechanics 38 (8): 1621–1628.10.1016/j.jbiomech.2004.07.033
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hormann, H., S. P. Banbury, H. J. Dudfield, M. Lodge, and H. Soll. 2004. “Effects of Situation Awareness Training on Flight Crew Performance.” A Cognitive Approach to Situation Awareness: Theory and Application, 213–232. Aldershot: Ashgate.
   Google Scholar
• Kelso, J. A. S. 1995. Dynamic Patterns: The Self-organization of Brain and Behavior. Cambridge, MA: MIT press.
   Google Scholar
• Knight, J. F., and C. Baber. 2007. “Effect of Head-mounted Displays on Posture.” Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 49 (5): 797–807.10.1518/001872007X230172
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kulas, A., P. Zalewski, T. Hortobagyi, and P. DeVita. 2008. “Effects of Added Trunk Load and Corresponding Trunk Position Adaptations on Lower Extremity Biomechanics During Drop-landings.” Journal of Biomechanics 41 (1): 180–185.10.1016/j.jbiomech.2007.06.027
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar, V., and V. Saran. 2014. “Influence of Reading Format on Reading Activity under Uniaxial Whole Body Vibration.” International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 44 (4): 520–527.10.1016/j.ergon.2014.05.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar, V., and V. Saran. 2015. “Influence of Postures and Vibration Magnitude on Seat-to-head Transmissibility During Uniaxial Whole Body Vibration Exposure.” International Journal of Vehicle Noise and Vibration 11 (2): 149–164.10.1504/IJVNV.2015.070026
   Google Scholar
• Kuramochi, R., T. Kimura, K. Nakazawa, M. Akai, S. Torii, and S. Suzuki. 2004. “Anticipatory Modulation of Neck Muscle Reflex Responses Induced by Mechanical Perturbations of the Human Forehead.” Neuroscience Letters 366 (2): 206–210.10.1016/j.neulet.2004.05.040
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, M., S. Durnford, J. Crowley, and A. Rupert. 1997. “Visual Vestibular Interaction in the Dynamic Visual Acuity Test During Voluntary Head Rotation.” Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine 68 (2): 111–117.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loverro, K. L., T. N. Brown, M. E. Coyne, and J. M. Schiffman. 2015. “Use of Body Armor Protection with Fighting Load Impacts Soldier Performance and Kinematics.” Applied Ergonomics 46: 168–175.10.1016/j.apergo.2014.07.015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacKenzie, C. L., and T. Iberall. 1994. The Grasping Hand. Amsterdam: North-Holland.
   Google Scholar
• Magill, R. A., and D. Anderson. 2007. Motor Learning and Control: Concepts and Applications. Vol. 11. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Majumdar, D., M. S. Pal, and D. Majumdar. 2010. “Effects of Military Load Carriage on Kinematics of Gait.” Ergonomics 53 (6): 782–791.10.1080/00140131003672015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matthis, J. S., S. L. Barton, and B. R. Fajen. 2015. “The Biomechanics of Walking Shape the Use of Visual Information During Locomotion over Complex Terrain.” Journal of Vision 15 (3): 10–10.10.1167/15.3.10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mulavara, A. P., M. C. Verstraete, and J. J. Bloomberg. 2002. “Modulation of Head Movement Control in Humans During Treadmill Walking.” Gait & Posture 16 (3): 271–282.10.1016/S0966-6362(02)00016-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murray, M., B. Lange, S. S. Chreiteh, H. B. Olsen, B. R. Nørnberg, E. Boyle, K. Søgaard, and G. Sjøgaard. 2016. “Neck and Shoulder Muscle Activity and Posture among Helicopter Pilots and Crew-members During Military Helicopter Flight.” Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology 27: 10–17.10.1016/j.jelekin.2015.12.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newell, G. S., and N. J. Mansfield. 2008. “Evaluation of Reaction Time Performance and Subjective Workload During Whole-body Vibration Exposure While Seated in Upright and Twisted Postures with and without Armrests.” International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 38 (5-6): 499–508.10.1016/j.ergon.2007.08.018
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palmer, C. J. 2012a. Postures for Precision: An Ecological Approach to Marksmanship and the Issue of Warfighter Load. PhD diss., University of Massachusetts at Amherst.
   Google Scholar
• Palmer, C. J. 2012b. “Warfighter Load, Survivability, and Shoot-and-move Dynamics.” Infantry 101: 28–32.
   Google Scholar
• Palmer, C. J., C. Bigelow, and R. E. Van Emmerik. 2013. “Defining Soldier Equipment Trade Space: Load Effects on Combat Marksmanship and Perception–Action Coupling.” Ergonomics 56 (11): 1708–1721.10.1080/00140139.2013.832805
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palmer, C. J., G. E. Riccio, and R. E. A. Van Emmerik. 2012. “Orienting under Load: Intrinsic Dynamics and Postural Affordances for Visual Perception.” Ecological Psychology 24 (2): 95–121.10.1080/10407413.2012.673970
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park, H., S. Kim, K. Morris, M. Moukperian, Y. Moon, and J. Stull. 2015. “Effect of Firefighters’ Personal Protective Equipment on Gait.” Applied Ergonomics 48: 42–48.10.1016/j.apergo.2014.11.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park, H., H. Trejo, M. Miles, A. Bauer, S. Kim, and J. Stull. 2015. “Impact of Firefighter Gear on Lower Body Range of Motion.” International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology 27 (2): 315–334.10.1108/IJCST-01-2014-0011
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parush, A., M. S. Gauthier, L. Arseneau, and D. Tang. 2011. “The Human Factors of Night Vision Goggles Perceptual, Cognitive, and Physical Factors.” Reviews of Human Factors and Ergonomics 7 (1): 238–279.10.1177/1557234X11410392
   Google Scholar
• Peoples, G., A. Silk, S. Notley, L. Holland, B. Collier, and D. Lee. 2010. “The Effect of a Tiered Body Armour System on Soldier Physical Mobility.” University of Wollongong. http://ro.uow.edu.au/smhpapers/35.
   Google Scholar
• Peters, B. T., R. E. van Emmerik, and J. J. Bloomberg. 2006. “Stride Cycle Influences on Goal-directed Head Movements Made During Walking.” Gait & Posture 24 (1): 70–76.10.1016/j.gaitpost.2005.07.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Punakallio, A., S. Lusa, and R. Luukkonen. 2003. “Protective Equipment Affects Balance Abilities Differently in Younger and Older Firefighters.” Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine 74 (11): 1151–1156.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qu, X. 2013. “Effects of Cognitive and Physical Loads on Local Dynamic Stability During Gait.” Applied Ergonomics 44 (3): 455–458.10.1016/j.apergo.2012.10.018
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rahmatalla, S., and J. DeShaw. 2011. “Effective Seat-to-head Transmissibility in Whole-body Vibration: Effects of Posture and Arm Position.” Journal of Sound and Vibration 330 (25): 6277–6286.10.1016/j.jsv.2011.07.034
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riccio, G. E. 1993. “Information in Movement Variability about the Qualitative Dynamics of Posture and Orientation.” In Variability and Motor Control, edited by K. M. Newell and D. M. Corcos, 317–357. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
   Google Scholar
• Riccio, G. E., and T. A. Stoffregen. 1988. “Affordances as Constraints on the Control of Stance.” Human Movement Science 7 (2-4): 265–300.10.1016/0167-9457(88)90014-0
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rucci, M., R. Iovin, M. Poletti, and F. Santini. 2007. “Miniature Eye Movements Enhance Fine Spatial Detail.” Nature 447 (7146): 852–855.10.1038/nature05866
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saus, E.-R., B. H. Johnsen, J. Eid, P. K. Riisem, R. Andersen, and J. F. Thayer. 2006. “The Effect of Brief Situational Awareness Training in a Police Shooting Simulator: An Experimental Study.” Military Psychology 18 (S): S3.10.1207/s15327876mp1803s_2
   Google Scholar
• Seay, J. F. 2015. “Biomechanics of Load Carriage–Historical Perspectives and Recent Insights.” Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 29: S129–S133.10.1519/JSC.0000000000001031
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sell, T. C., Y. Chu, J. P. Abt, T. Nagai, J. Deluzio, M. A. McGrail, R. S. Rowe, and S. M. Lephart. 2010. “Minimal Additional Weight of Combat Equipment Alters Air Assault Soldiers’ Landing Biomechanics.” Military Medicine 175 (1): 41–47.10.7205/MILMED-D-09-00066
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaw, R., and J. Kinsella-Shaw. 2007. “The Survival Value of Informed Awareness.” Journal of Consciousness Studies 14 (1–2): 137–154.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silder, A., T. Besier, and S. L. Delp. 2015. “Running with a Load Increases Leg Stiffness.” Journal of Biomechanics 48 (6): 1003–1008.10.1016/j.jbiomech.2015.01.051
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, S. D., and J. A. Smith. 2006. “Head and Helmet Biodynamics and Tracking Performance During Exposure to Whole-body Vibration.” Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine 77 (4): 388–397.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tharion, W. J., and J. P. Obusek. 1999. “Effects of a New Individual Fighting System on Marksmanship.” International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 25 (1): 79–84.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tung, K., M. Miller, J. Colombi, D. Uribe, and S. Smith. 2014. “Effect of Vibration on Eye, Head and Helmet Movements While Wearing a Helmet-mounted Display.” Journal of the Society for Information Display 22 (10): 535–544.10.1002/jsid.v22.10
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turvey, M. T. 1992. “Affordances and Prospective Control: An Outline of the Ontology.” Ecological Psychology 4 (3): 173–187.10.1207/s15326969eco0403_3
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Army Asymmetric Warfare Group Interim Report. 2006. Infantry Load Update. Washington, DC: U.S. Army G3.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Army Report 2009. Infantry Load Update (Operational Evaluation). Fort Benning, GA: U.S. Army Infantry Center-TRADOC.
   Google Scholar
• Van Emmerik, R. E. A. 2007. “The Functional Role of Movement Variability in Movement Coordination.” In Ecological Task Analysis and Movement, edited by W. Davis and G. Broadhead, 25–52. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
   Google Scholar
• Zhang, S., T. R. Derrick, W. Evans, and Y.-J. Yu. 2008. “Shock and Impact Reduction in Moderate and Strenuous Landing Activities.” Sports Biomechanics 7 (2): 296–309.10.1080/14763140701841936
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar