No pain, no gain? The effects of adding a pain stimulus in virtual training for police officers

References

• Alaker, M., G.R. Wynn, and T. Arulampalam. 2016. “Virtual Reality Training in Laparoscopic Surgery: A Systematic Review & Meta-Analysis.” International Journal of Surgery 29: 85–94. doi:10.1016/j.ijsu.2016.03.034.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andersen, J.P., and H. Gustafsberg. 2016. “A Training Method to Improve Police Use of Force Decision Making: A Randomized Controlled Trial.” Sage Open, 6 (2): 215824401663870. doi:10.1177/2158244016638708.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andersen, J.P., M. Pitel, A. Weerasinghe, and K. Papazoglou. 2016. “Highly Realistic Scenario Based Training Simulates the Psychophysiology of Real World Use of Force Encounters: Implications for Improved Police Officer Performance.”
   Google Scholar
• Anderson, G.S., P. Di Nota, G. Metz, and J. Andersen. 2019. “The Impact of Acute Stress Physiology on Skilled Motor Performance: Implications for Policing.” Frontiers in Psychology 10: 2501. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02501.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Anderson, G.S., R. Litzenberger, and D. Plecas. 2002. “Physical Evidence of Police Officer Stress.” Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management 25 (2): 399–420. doi:10.1108/13639510210429437.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arble, E.P., and B.B. Arnetz. 2021. Interventions, Training, and Technologies for Improved Police Well-Being and Performance. IGI Global.
   Google Scholar
• Ashraf, A., D. Collins, M. Whelan, R. O'Sullivan, and P. Balfe. 2015. “Three-Dimensional (3D) Simulation versus Two-Dimensional (2D) Enhances Surgical Skills Acquisition in Standardised Laparoscopic Tasks: A Before and After Study.” International Journal of Surgery 14: 12–16. doi:10.1016/j.ijsu.2014.12.020.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baldwin, S., C. Bennell, J.P. Andersen, T. Semple, and B. Jenkins. 2019. “Stress-Activity Mapping: Physiological Responses during General Duty Police Encounters.” Frontiers in Psychology 10: 2216. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02216.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beinicke, A., and A. Muff. 2019. “Effectiveness of Simulation-Based Learning in Basic Police Training.” European Law Enforcement Research Bulletin (4 SCE), 207–212.
   Google Scholar
• Bélanger, K., and I. Blanchette. 2022. “Stress and the Interpretation of Ambiguous Faces in Police Officers.” Police Practice and Research 23 (6): 633–646.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bertilsson, J., D.C. Niehorster, P. Fredriksson, M. Dahl, S. Granér, O. Fredriksson, J. Mårtensson, M. Magnusson, P.-A. Fransson, and M. Nyström. 2020. “Towards Systematic and Objective Evaluation of Police Officer Performance in Stressful Situations.” Police Practice and Research 21 (6): 655–669. doi:10.1080/15614263.2019.1666006.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhagat, K.K., W.-K. Liou, and C.-Y. Chang. 2016. “A Cost-Effective Interactive 3D Virtual Reality System Applied to Military Live Firing Training.” Virtual Reality 20 (2): 127–140. doi:10.1007/s10055-016-0284-x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brunswik, E. 1956. Perception and the Representative Design of Psychological Experiments. University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• Cohen, J. 1969. Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences. Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Craig, A.D. 2002. “How Do You Feel? Interoception: The Sense of the Physiological Condition of the Body.” Nature Reviews. Neuroscience 3 (8): 655–666. doi:10.1038/nrn894.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davids, K., D. Araújo, L. Vilar, I. Renshaw, and R. Pinder. 2013. “An Ecological Dynamics Approach to Skill Acquisition: Implications for Development of Talent in Sport.” Talent Development and Excellence 5 (1): 21–34.
   Google Scholar
• de Armas, C., R. Tori, and A.V. Netto. 2020. “Use of Virtual Reality Simulators for Training Programs in the Areas of Security and Defense: A Systematic Review.” Multimedia Tools and Applications 79 (5–6): 3495–3515. doi:10.1007/s11042-019-08141-8.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Di Nota, P.M., and J.-M. Huhta. 2019. “Complex Motor Learning and Police Training: Applied, Cognitive, and Clinical Perspectives.” Frontiers in Psychology 10: 1797. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01797.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gallace, A., M.K. Ngo, J. Sulaitis, and C. Spence. 2012. “Multisensory Presence in Virtual Reality: Possibilities & Limitations.” In Multiple Sensorial Media Advances and Applications: New Developments in MulSeMedia, 1–38. IGI Global.
   Google Scholar
• Gąsiorek, K., E. Odachowska, A. Matysiak, and M. Pędzierska. 2019. “Virtual Reality Technologies in the Training of Professional Drivers. Comparison of the 2D and 3D Simulation Application.” International Scientific Conference Transport of the 21st Century.
   Google Scholar
• Giessing, L. 2021. “The Potential of Virtual Reality for Police Training under Stress: A SWOT Analysis.” In Interventions, Training, and Technologies for Improved Police Well-Being and Performance, 102–124. IGI Global.
   Google Scholar
• Giessing, L., M.O. Frenkel, C. Zinner, J. Rummel, A. Nieuwenhuys, C. Kasperk, M. Brune, F.A. Engel, and H. Plessner. 2019. “Effects of Coping-Related Traits and Psychophysiological Stress Responses on Police Recruits’ Shooting Behavior in Reality-Based Scenarios.” Frontiers in Psychology 10: 1523. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01523.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Groer, M., R. Murphy, W. Bunnell, K. Salomon, J. Van Eepoel, B. Rankin, K. White, and C. Bykowski. 2010. “Salivary Measures of Stress and Immunity in Police Officers Engaged in Simulated Critical Incident Scenarios.” Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 52 (6): 595–602. doi:10.1097/JOM.0b013e3181e129da.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Houtman, I., and F. Bakker. 1989. “The Anxiety Thermometer: A Validation Study.” Journal of Personality Assessment 53 (3): 575–582. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa5303_14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kent, J.A., and C.E. Hughes. 2022. “Law Enforcement Training Using Simulation for Locally Customized Encounters.” Frontiers in Virtual Reality 3: 960146. doi:10.3389/frvir.2022.960146.
   Google Scholar
• Kleygrewe, L., R.R. Oudejans, M. Koedijk, and R. Hutter. 2022. “Police Training in Practice: Organization and Delivery according to European Law Enforcement Agencies.” Frontiers in Psychology 12: 798067. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.798067.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lessiter, J., J. Freeman, E. Keogh, and J. Davidoff. 2001. “A Cross-Media Presence Questionnaire: The ITC-Sense of Presence Inventory.” Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments 10 (3): 282–297. doi:10.1162/105474601300343612.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marucci, M., G. Di Flumeri, G. Borghini, N. Sciaraffa, M. Scandola, E.F. Pavone, F. Babiloni, V. Betti, and P. Aricò. 2021. “The Impact of Multisensory Integration and Perceptual Load in Virtual Reality Settings on Performance, Workload and Presence.” Scientific Reports 11 (1): 1–15. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-84196-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melo, M., G. Gonçalves, P. Monteiro, H. Coelho, J. Vasconcelos-Raposo, and M. Bessa. 2020. “Do Multisensory Stimuli Benefit the Virtual Reality Experience? A Systematic Review.” IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics 28 (2): 1428–1442.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michalski, S.C., A. Szpak, D. Saredakis, T.J. Ross, M. Billinghurst, and T. Loetscher. 2019. “Getting Your Game On: Using Virtual Reality to Improve Real Table Tennis Skills.” PLOS One 14 (9): e0222351. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0222351.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murtinger, M., E. Jaspaert, H. Schrom-Feiertag, and S. Egger-Lampl. 2021. “CBRNe Training in Virtual Environments: SWOT Analysis & Practical Guidelines.” International Journal of Safety and Security Engineering 11 (4): 295–303. doi:10.18280/ijsse.110402.
   Google Scholar
• Naqvi, S.A.A., N. Badruddin, A.S. Malik, W. Hazabbah, and B. Abdullah. 2013. “Does 3D Produce More Symptoms of Visually Induced Motion Sickness?” 2013 35th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC). doi:10.1109/EMBC.2013.6611020.
   Google Scholar
• Nazari, G., P. Bobos, J.C. MacDermid, K.E. Sinden, J. Richardson, and A. Tang. 2018. “Psychometric Properties of the Zephyr Bioharness Device: A Systematic Review.” BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation 10 (1): 1–8. doi:10.1186/s13102-018-0094-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nieuwenhuys, A., S.R. Caljouw, M.R. Leijsen, B.A. Schmeits, and R.R. Oudejans. 2009. “Quantifying Police Officers’ Arrest and Self-Defence Skills: Does Performance Decrease under Pressure?” Ergonomics 52 (12): 1460–1468. doi:10.1080/00140130903287981.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nieuwenhuys, A., R. Cañal‐Bruland, and R.R. Oudejans. 2012. “Effects of Threat on Police Officers’ Shooting Behavior: anxiety, Action Specificity, and Affective Influences on Perception.” Applied Cognitive Psychology 26 (4): 608–615. doi:10.1002/acp.2838.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nieuwenhuys, A., and R.R. Oudejans. 2010. “Effects of Anxiety on Handgun Shooting Behavior of Police Officers: A Pilot Study.” Anxiety, Stress, and Coping 23 (2): 225–233. doi:10.1080/10615800902977494.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nieuwenhuys, A., and R.R. Oudejans. 2011. “Training with Anxiety: short-and Long-Term Effects on Police Officers’ Shooting Behavior under Pressure.” Cognitive Processing 12 (3): 277–288. doi:10.1007/s10339-011-0396-x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nieuwenhuys, A., G.J. Savelsbergh, and R.R. Oudejans. 2015. “Persistence of Threat-Induced Errors in Police Officers’ Shooting Decisions.” Applied Ergonomics 48: 263–272. doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2014.12.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• North, M.M., and S.M. North. 2016. “A Comparative Study of Sense of Presence of Traditional Virtual Reality and Immersive Environments.” Australasian Journal of Information Systems 20.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ogden, R.S., D. Moore, L. Redfern, and F. McGlone. 2015. “The Effect of Pain and the Anticipation of Pain on Temporal Perception: A Role for Attention and Arousal.” Cognition & Emotion 29 (5): 910–922. doi:10.1080/02699931.2014.954529.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• OmniSense Analysis Help. 2016. Zephyr Technology. https://www.zephyranywhere.com/media/download/omnisense-analysis-help-20-apr-2016.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Oudejans, R. 2008. “Reality-Based Practice under Pressure Improves Handgun Shooting Performance of Police Officers.” Ergonomics 51 (3): 261–273. doi:10.1080/00140130701577435.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oudejans, R.R., and J.R. Pijpers. 2009. “Training with Anxiety Has a Positive Effect on Expert Perceptual–Motor Performance under Pressure.” Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 62 (8): 1631–1647. doi:10.1080/17470210802557702.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Renden, P.G., A. Landman, S.F. Geerts, S.E. Jansen, G.S. Faber, G.J. Savelsbergh, and R.R. Oudejans. 2014. “Effects of Anxiety on the Execution of Police Arrest and Self-Defense Skills.” Anxiety, Stress, and Coping 27 (1): 100–112. doi:10.1080/10615806.2013.810213.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scarfe, P., and A. Glennerster. 2019. “The Science behind Virtual Reality Displays.” Annual Review of Vision Science 5: 529–547. doi:10.1146/annurev-vision-091718-014942.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slater, M. 2009. “Place Illusion and Plausibility Can Lead to Realistic Behaviour in Immersive Virtual Environments.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 364 (1535): 3549–3557. doi:10.1098/rstb.2009.0138.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vonk, K. 2008. Police Performance under Stress. Deerfield, IL: Hendon Publishing Company.
   Google Scholar
• Wilson, M., N.C. Smith, and P.S. Holmes. 2007. “The Role of Effort in Influencing the Effect of Anxiety on Performance: Testing the Conflicting Predictions of Processing Efficiency Theory and the Conscious Processing Hypothesis.” British Journal of Psychology 98 (Pt 3): 411–428.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zijlstra, F.R.H. 1993. Efficiency in Work Behaviour: A Design Approach for Modern Tools. Delft, The Netherlands: Delft University Press.
   Google Scholar